its initial temperature.  This constituted another and a very serious loss.  Then, again, as the water was gradually driven out of the containing vessel by the steam pressing on its surface, new portions of the vessel and new masses of water were continually brought in contact with the hot steam, taking its full temperature, and thus, often, probably, finally heating the whole mass of the forcing vessel, and a large proportion of the water as well, up to the temperature, approximately at least, of the steam itself.  Thus in many instances, if not always, vastly more heat and steam were wasted, in this undesirable heating of water and forcing vessel, than were usefully employed in the legitimate work of raising the water to a higher level.  In fact, in some cases in which these quantities were measured, the wastes were one hundred times as much as the work done.  One per cent. of the heat supplied did the work; while ninety-nine per cent. was thrown away.  One dollar or one shilling expended for fuel to do the work was accompanied by an expenditure of ninety-nine dollars or shillings thrown away, because of the imperfections of the system and machine.  The whole history of the development of the steam engine has been one of gradual reduction of these wastes; until to-day, our best engines only compel us to spend five dollars for wastes to each dollar paid out for useful work.  A business man would think that amply extravagant, however, and the man of science is continually seeking methods of evading these losses, a large proportion of which are now apparently unavoidable in heat engines, by finding some new system of heat and energy transformation.

Watt was the instrument maker and repairer at Glasgow University in the year 1763.  His companions were, among others, the professors of natural philosophy and of mathematics in the university.  Their conversation and their frequent presentation of practical and scientific questions and problems stimulated his naturally inquiring and inventive mind to the pursuit of a thousand interesting and promising schemes for the improvement of existing methods and machinery.  Dr. Robison, then a student, suggested the invention of a steam carriage for use on common roads, and the young mechanician at once began experiments that, resulting in nothing at the time, were nevertheless continued, in one or another form, until all modern applications of steam came into view.  Dr. Black taught Watt chemistry, then a newly constructed science, and led him on to the discovery, finally made by them independently, of the fact and the magnitude of the latent heat of steam; the discovery coming of a series of scientifically planned and accurately conducted investigations, such as the man of science of to-day would deem creditable.  The treatises of Desaguliers and others on physics gave Watt a knowledge of that domain of natural phenomena which stood him in good stead later, when he attempted to apply its principles to the reduction of the wastes of the steam engine.