But meanwhile foreign affairs were tending to bring about changes yet more sweeping.  When England went to war with both France and Spain, the condition of Ireland was well-nigh desperate.  The country was almost denuded of regular troops; steps had indeed been taken for the establishment of a militia, and arms had actually been purchased; but in the hopelessly insolvent condition of the Irish Exchequer, it was impossible to do anything further.  And a French invasion might arrive at any moment.  At this crisis the country gentlemen came forward.  They formed their tenants and dependants into regiments of volunteers, of which they took command themselves, and strained their resources to the utmost in order to bear the expense of the undertaking.  And the rank and file—­farmers and labourers—­seemed fired by the same enthusiasm.  The movement spread rapidly over the country, but it possessed more vitality in Ulster than elsewhere.  It soon became evident that Ulster volunteers may form a body not to be disregarded.

The troubles of England, however, were not limited to the Continent.  The American War broke out.  We, who view the question impartially through the long vista of years, can see that there was much to be said for the English claim.  The mother country had been brought to the verge of bankruptcy by a long and exhausting war waged with France for the protection of the American colonies; surely it was only fair that those colonies, who had taken but a very small part in the war, should at least bear a fraction of the cost.  But the cry of “No taxation without representation” was raised; the Americans rebelled; and England was placed in the humiliating position of being defeated by her own colonists.  During that period Ireland remained thoroughly loyal; the efforts of Franklin and his party to enlist Ireland on their side were as complete a failure as those of the French emissaries had been shortly before.  But it was inevitable that the success of the American revolution should have a strong effect on Irish affairs.  Amongst the northern Presbyterians there had always been a feeling somewhat akin to Republicanism; and (as we have seen) many of their relations were fighting in Washington’s army.  Then in Ireland there was something much worse than taxation without representation:  the English Parliament, in which Ireland had no part, claimed to legislate for Ireland and was actually at that moment keeping the country in a state of semi-starvation by imposing severe restrictions on commerce.  Irish politicians read the offers of conciliation made by the English Government to the revolted colonies, in which not only was the power of taxation given up and freedom of internal legislation established, but all power of the Parliament of Great Britain over America was renounced; and began to ask whether England could withhold from loyal Irishmen the boons which she offered to rebellious Americans.  The claims were urged in Parliament and at meetings of the volunteers