were inconceivably complicated by the exchanges.  We think we know something about the difficulty of divers and fluctuating exchanges today, but we can hardly imagine the elaborate calculations and the constant disputes which racked the brain of a Merchant of the Staple in the fifteenth century.  Not only did the rates between England and the Continent constantly vary, but, as the editor of the Cely Papers points out, ’the number of potentates of all kinds who claimed the privilege of issuing their own coinage and the frequently suspicious character of what they uttered as gold and silver, made the matter of adjustment of values difficult for the Celys, who were evidently obliged to take what they could get.’[67] Only imagine the difficulties of poor Thomas Betson, when into his counting-house there wandered in turn the Andrew guilder of Scotland, the Arnoldus gulden of Gueldres (very much debased), the Carolus groat of Charles of Burgundy, new crowns and old crowns of France, the David and the Falewe of the Bishopric of Utrecht, the Hettinus groat of the Counts of Westphalia, the Lewe or French Louis d’or, the Limburg groat, the Milan groat, the Nimueguen groat, the Phelippus or Philippe d’or of Brabant, the Plaques of Utrecht, the Postlates of various bishops, the English Ryall (worth ten shillings), the Scots Rider or the Rider of Burgundy (so called because they bore the figure of a man on horseback), the Florin Rhenau of the Bishopric of Cologne and the Setillers.[68] He had to know the value in English money of them all, as it was fixed for the time being by the Fellowship, and most of them were debased past all reason.  Indeed, English money enjoyed an enviable good fame in this respect until Henry VIII began debasing the coinage for his own nefarious ends.  The letters of the Celys are full of worried references to the exchange, and much we should pity Thomas Betson.  But doubtless he was like Chaucer’s bearded merchant:  ‘Wel koude he in exchaunge sheeldes [French crowns] selle.’

[Illustration:  VII.  CALAIS ABOUT THE TIME OF THOMAS BETSON]

To effect their payments between England and the Netherlands the staplers used to make use of the excellent banking facilities and instruments of credit (bills of exchange and so forth), which were placed at their disposal by Italian and Spanish merchants and by the English mercers, all of whom combined trading with financial operations.  Thus we find William Cely writing to his masters: 

[Illustration:  VIII.  THOMAS PAYCOCKE’S HOUSE AT COGGESHALL]

Please your masterships to understand that I have received of John Delowppys upon payment of the bill, the which is sent me by Adlington but L300 fleming, whereof I have paid to Gynott Strabant L84 6s. 6d. fleming.  Item, I have made you over by exchange with Benynge Decasonn, Lombard, 180 nobles sterling, payable at usance.  I delivered it at 11s. 2-1/2d. fleming the noble, it amounteth L100 17s.