phenomena and these were called dhammas.  The question arises that if there is no substance or reality how are we to account for the phenomena?  But the phenomena are happening and passing away and the main point of interest with the Buddha was to find out “What being what else is,” “What happening what else happens” and “What not being what else is not.”  The phenomena are happening in a series and we see that there being certain phenomena there become some others; by the happening of some events others also are produced.  This is called (pa@ticca-samuppada) dependent origination.  But it is difficult to understand what is the exact nature of this dependence.  The question as Sa@myutta Nikaya (II. 5) has it with which the Buddha started before attaining Buddhahood was this:  in what miserable condition are the people! they are born, they decay, they die, pass away and are born again; and they do not know the path of escape from this decay, death and misery.

How to know the Way to escape from this misery of decay and death.  Then it occurred to him what being there, are decay and death, depending on what do they come?  As he thought deeply into the root of the matter, it occurred to him that decay and death can only occur when there is birth (jati), so they depend

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[Footnote 1:  There are some differences of opinion as to whether one could take the doctrine of the twelve links of causes as we find it in the Sa@myutta Nikaya as the earliest Buddhist view, as Sa@myutta does not represent the oldest part of the suttas.  But as this doctrine of the twelve causes became regarded as a fundamental Buddhist doctrine and as it gives us a start in philosophy I have not thought it fit to enter into conjectural discussions as to the earliest form.  Dr E.J.  Thomas drew my attention to this fact.]

[Footnote 2:  Atthasatini, p. 38.  There are also other senses in which the word is used, as dhamma-desana where it means religious teaching.  The La@nkavatara described Dharmma as gu@nadravyapurvaka dharmma, i.e.  Dharmmas are those which are associated as attributes and substances.]

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on birth.  What being there, is there birth, on what does birth depend?  Then it occurred to him that birth could only be if there were previous existence (bhava) [Footnote ref 1].  But on what does this existence depend, or what being there is there bhava.  Then it occurred to him that there could not be existence unless there were holding fast (upadana) [Footnote ref 2].  But on what did upadana depend?  It occurred to him that it was desire (ta@nha) on which upadana depended.  There can be upadana if there is desire (tanha) [Footnote ref 3].  But what being there, can there be desire?  To this question it occurred to him that there must be feeling (vedana) in order