a graduated course of practice is necessary.  This graduated practice should be so arranged that by generating the practice of living higher and better modes of life, and steadying the mind on its subtler states, the habits of ordinary life may be removed.  As the yogin advances he has to give up what he had adopted as good and try for that which is still better.  Continuing thus he reaches the state when the buddhi is in its ultimate perfection and purity.  At this stage the buddhi assumes the form of the puru@sa, and final liberation takes place.

Karmas in Yoga are divided into four classes:  (1) s’ukla or white (pu@nya, those that produce happiness), (2) k@r@s@na or black (papa, those that produce sorrow), (3) s’ukla-k@r@s@na (pu@nya-papa, most of our ordinary actions are partly virtuous and partly vicious as they involve, if not anything else, at least the death of many insects), (4) as’uklak@r@s@na (those inner acts of self-abnegation, and meditation which are devoid of any fruits as pleasures or pains).  All external actions involve some sins, for it is difficult to work in the world and avoid taking the lives of insects [Footnote ref 2].  All karmas

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[Footnote 1:  Both Sa@mkhya and Yoga speak of this emancipated state a Kaivalya (alone-ness), the former because all sorrows have been absolutely uprooted, never to grow up again and the latter because at this state puru@sa remains for ever alone without any association with buddhi, see Sa@mkhya karika, 68 and Yoga sutras, IV. 34.]

[Footnote 2:  Vyasabha@sya and Tattvavais’aradi, IV. 7.]

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proceed from the five-fold afflictions (kles’as), namely avidya, asmita, raga, dve@sa and abhinives’a.

We have already noticed what was meant by avidya.  It consists generally in ascribing intelligence to buddhi, in thinking it as permanent and leading to happiness.  This false knowledge while remaining in this form further manifests itself in the other four forms of asmita, etc.  Asmita means the thinking of worldly objects and our experiences as really belonging to us—­the sense of “mine” or “I” to things that really are the qualities or transformations of the gu@nas.  Raga means the consequent attachment to pleasures and things.  Dve@sa means aversion or antipathy to unpleasant things.  Abhinives’a is the desire for life or love of life—­the will to be.  We proceed to work because we think our experiences to be our own, our body to be our own, our family to be our own, our possessions to be our own; because we are attached to these; because we feel great antipathy against any mischief that might befall them, and also because we love our life and always try to preserve it against any mischief.  These all proceed, as is easy to see, from their root avidya, which consists in the