that has come down to us from the early Stoics, and is a remarkable production, setting forth the unity of God, his omnipotence, and his moral government.  CHRYSIPPUS, from Soli in Cilicia (290—­207 B.C.), followed Cleanthes, and, in his voluminous writings, both defended and modified the Stoical creed.  These three represent the first period of the system.  The second period (200—­50 B.C.) embraces its general promulgation, and its introduction to the Romans.  Chrysippus was succeeded by ZENO of Sidon, and DIOGENES of Babylon; then followed ANTIPATER, of Tarsus, who taught PANAETIUS of Rhodes (d. 112 B.C.), who, again, taught POSIDONIUS of Apamea, in Syria. (Two philosophers are mentioned from the native province of St. Paul, besides Chrysippus—­ATHEKODOEUS, from Cana in Cilicia; and ARCHEDEMUS, from Tarsus, the apostle’s birthplace.  It is remarked by Sir A. Grant, that almost all the first Stoics were of Asiatic birth; and the system itself is undeniably more akin to the oriental mind than to the Greek.) Posidonius was acquainted with Marius and Pompey, and gave lessons to Cicero, but the moral treatise of Cicero, De Officiis, is derived from a work of Panaetius.  The third period of Stoicism is Roman.  In this period, we have Cato the Younger, who invited to his house the philosopher Athenodorus; and, under the Empire, the three Stoic philosophers, whose writings have come down to us—­SENECA (6 B.C.-65 A.D.), EPICTETUS (60-140 A.D.), who began life as a slave, and the Emperor MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS (121-180 A.D.).  Stoicism prevailed widely in the Roman world, although not to the exclusion of Epicurean views.

The leading Stoical doctrines are given in certain phrases or expressions, as ‘Life according to Nature’ (although this phrase belongs also to the Epicureans), the ideal ‘Wise Man,’ ‘Apathy,’ or equanimity of mind (also an Epicurean ideal), the power of the ‘Will,’ the worship of ‘Duty,’ the constant ‘Advance’ in virtue, &c.  But perspicuity will be best gained by considering the Moral system under four heads—­the Theology; the Psychology or theory of mind; the theory of the Good or human happiness; and the scheme of Virtue or Duty.

I.—­The THEOLOGICAL doctrines of the Stoics comprehended their system of the Universe, and of man’s position in it.  They held that the Universe is governed by one good and wise God, together with inferior or subordinate deities.  God exercises a moral government; under it the good are happy, while misfortunes happen to the wicked.  According to Epictetus, God is the father of men; Antoninus exults in the beautiful arrangement of all things.  The earlier Stoics, Zeno and Chrysippus, entertained high reverence for the divination, prophecy, and omens that were generally current in the ancient world.  They considered that these were the methods whereby the gods were graciously pleased to make known beforehand revelations of their foreordained purposes. (Herein