III.—­With regard to the Summum Bonum, or the theory of Happiness, he holds that men cannot be happy by the pursuit of mere self; but must give way to their benevolent impulses as well, all under the guidance of conscience.  In short, virtue is happiness, even in this world; and, if there be any exception to the rule, it will be rectified in another world.  This is in fact the Platonic view.  Men are not to pursue happiness; that would be to fall into the narrow rut of self-love, and would be a failure; they are to pursue virtue, including the good of others, and the greatest happiness will ensue to each.

It is a remarkable indication of the spirit of Butler’s age, or of his estimate of it, that he would never venture to require of any one a single act of uncompensated self-sacrifice.

IV.—­The substance of the Moral Code of Butler is in no respect peculiar to him.  He gives no classification of our duties.  His means and inducements to virtue have just been remarked upon.

V.—­The relationship of Ethics to Politics and to Theology needs no remark.

FRANCIS HUTCHESON. [1694-1747.]

Hutcheson’s views are to be found in his ’Inquiry into the Ideas of Beauty and Virtue,’ his ‘Treatise on the Passions,’ and his posthumous work, ‘A System of Moral Philosophy.’  The last-mentioned, as the completest exposition of his Ethics, Speculative and Practical, is followed here.

There are three books; the first treating of Human Nature and Happiness; the second, of Laws of Nature and Duties, previous to Civil Government and other adventitious states; the third, of Civil Polity.

In Book I., Chap.  I., Hutcheson states that the aim of Moral Philosophy is to point out the course of action that will best promote the highest happiness and perfection of men, by the light of human nature and to the exclusion of revelation; thus to indicate the rules of conduct that make up the Law of Nature.  Happiness, the end of this art, being the state of the mind arising from its several grateful perceptions or modifications, the natural course of the inquiry is to consider the various human powers, perceptions, and actions, and then to compare them so as to find what really constitutes happiness, and how it may be attained.  The principles that first display themselves in childhood are the external senses, with some small powers of spontaneous motion, introducing to the mind perceptions of pleasure and pain, which becoming forthwith the object of desire and aversion, are our first notions of natural good and evil.  Next to Ideas of Sensation, we acquire Concomitant ideas of Sensation from two or more senses together—­number, extension, &c.  Ideas of consciousness or reflection, which is another natural power of perception, complete the list of the materials of knowledge; to which, when the powers of judging and reasoning are added, all the main acts of the understanding are given.  There are still, however, some finer perceptions, that may be left over until the will is disposed of.