of covenants. (3) He warns men (he means his contemporaries) against resorting to the mode of injustice known as rebellion to gain sovereignty, from the hopelessness of gaining it and the uncertainty of keeping it.  Hence he concludes that justice is a rule of reason, the keeping of covenants being the surest way to preserve our life, and therefore a law of nature.  He rejects the notion that laws of nature are to be supposed conducive, not to the preservation of life on earth, but to the attainment of eternal felicity; whereto such breach of covenant as rebellion may sometimes be supposed a means.  For that, the knowledge of the future life is too uncertain.  Finally, he consistently holds that faith is to be kept with heretics and with all that it has once been pledged to.

He goes on to distinguish between justice of men or manners, and justice of actions; whereby in the one case men are just or righteous, and in the other, guiltless.  After making the common observation that single inconsistent acts do not destroy a character for justice or injustice, he has this:  ’That which gives to human actions the relish of justice, is a certain nobleness or gallantness of courage rarely found, by which a man scorns to be beholden for the contentment of his life to fraud, or breach of promise.’  Then he shows the difference between injustice, injury, and damage; asserts that nothing done to a mail with his consent can be injury; and, rejecting the common mode of distinguishing between commutative and distributive justice, calls the first the justice of a contractor, and the other an improper name for just distribution, or the justice of an arbitrator, i.e., the act of defining what is just—­equivalent to equity, which is itself a law of nature.

The rest of the laws follow in swift succession.  The 4th recommends Gratitude, which depends on antecedent grace instead of covenant.  Free-gift being voluntary, i.e., done with intention of good to one’s self, there will be an end to benevolence and mutual help, unless gratitude is given as compensation.

The 5th enjoins Complaisance; a disposition in men not to seek superfluities that to others are necessaries.  Such men are sociable.

The 6th enjoins Pardon upon repentance, with a view (like the last) to peace.

The 7th enjoins that punishment is to be only for correction of the offender and direction of others; i.e., for profit and example, not for ‘glorying in the hurt of another, tending to no end.’  Against Cruelty.

The 8th is against Contumely, as provocative of dispeace.

The 9th is against Pride, and enjoins the acknowledgment of the equality of all men by nature.  He is here very sarcastic against Aristotle, and asserts, in opposition to him, that all inequality of men arises from consent.

The 10th is, in like manner, against Arrogance, and in favour of Modesty.  Men, in entering into peace, are to reserve no rights but such as they are willing shall be reserved by others.