In the absence of gas or electricity or even kerosene, there was no better means of lighting a house than by oil-lamps.  Even those were provided with no chimney.  Naturally every effort would be made to obtain such oil as would produce the least smoke or smell, but doubtless the difficulty was never completely overcome.  It is therefore natural to hear of the oil being mixed with perfume.  In the less well-to-do houses there might be wax candles, in still poorer houses candles of tallow or even rush-lights, formed by long strips of rush or other fibrous plant thinly dipped in tallow.  Generally speaking, however, the Roman house was lit by lamps filled with olive-oil.  The commonest were made of terra-cotta, the better sorts of bronze or silver, often richly ornamented and sometimes very graceful.  As typical specimens we may take those here illustrated.

[Illustration:  FIG. 54.—­LAMPS.]

The little figure standing on the one lamp is holding a chain, to which is attached the probe for forcing up the wick or for clearing away the “mushrooms” that might form upon it.  Lamps are made in all manner of fantastic shapes—­ships, shoes, and other objects—­and may burn either one wick or a considerable number, projecting from different nozzles.  For the purpose of lighting a room they may either be placed upon the top of upright standards, four or five feet high and sometimes with shafts which could be adjusted in height like the modern reading-stand; or they may be hung from the ceiling by chains, after the manner of a chandelier, or held by a statue, or suspended from a stand shaped like a pillar or a tree, from whose branches they hang like fruit.  For use in the street there were torches and also lanterns, which had a metal frame and were “glazed” with sheets of transparent horn, with bladder in the cheaper instances, or with transparent talc in the more costly.

[Illustration:  FIG. 35.—­LAMP-HOLDER AS TREE.]

As with the Greeks, a Roman house was lavish in the use and display of cups and plate in great diversity of shape and material.  Glass vessels were numerous and, except for a perfectly pure white variety, were produced both at Rome and Alexandria with the most ingenious finish.  A kind of porcelain was also known, but was very rare and highly valued.  For the most part the poor used earthenware cups and plates or wooden trenchers.  The rich sought after a lavish profusion of silver goblets studded with jewels and sometimes ventured on a cup of gold, although the use of a full gold service was by imperial ordinance restricted to the palace.  There were drinking vessels, broad and shallow with richly embossed or repousse work, or deep with double handles and a foot, or otherwise diversified.  There were all manner of plates and dishes of silver or of silver-gilt.  There were graceful jugs and ladles and mixing-bowls.  What we regard as most essential articles, but missing from a Roman table, are knives and forks.  Table-forks, indeed, were unknown till a very modern date, but even knives were scarcely in use at Rome except by the professional carver at his stand.  There were also heaters, in which water could be kept hot at table and drawn off by a small tap.