work for them without wages.  He tries to defend his young crops from their game; again they prevent him.  As he crosses the river they wait for his passage to levy a toll.  He finds them at the market, where they sell him the right of selling his own produce; and when, on his return home, he wants to use the remainder of his wheat for his own sustenance—­of that wheat which was planted by his own hands, and has grown under his eyes—­he cannot touch it till he has ground it at the mill and baked it at the bakehouse of these same men.  A portion of his little property is paid away in quit-rents to them also, and these dues can neither be extinguished nor redeemed.

The lord, when deprived of his former power, considered himself liberated from his former obligations; and no local authority, no council, no provincial or parochial association had taken his place.  No single being was any longer compelled by law to take care of the poor in the rural districts, and the central government had boldly undertaken to provide for their wants by its own resources.

Every year the king’s council assigned to each province certain funds derived from the general produce of the taxes, which the intendant distributed.

Sometimes the king’s council insisted upon compelling individuals to prosper, whether they would or no.  The ordinances constraining artisans to use certain methods and manufacture certain articles are innumerable; and, as the intendants had not time to superintend the application of all these regulations, there were inspectors general of manufactures, who visited in the provinces to insist on their fulfilment.

So completely had the government already changed its duty as a sovereign into that of a guardian.

In France municipal freedom outlived the feudal system.  Long after the landlords were no longer the rulers of the country districts, the towns still retained the right of self-government.

In most instances the government of the towns was vested in two assemblies.  All the great towns were thus governed, and some of the small ones.  The first of these assemblies was composed of municipal officers, more of less numerous according to the place.  These municipal officers never received any stipend, but they were remunerated by exemptions from taxation and by privileges.

The second assembly, which was termed the general assembly, elected the corporation, wherever it was still subject to election, and always continued to take a part in the principal concerns of the town.

If we turn from the towns to the villages, we meet with different powers and different forms of government.