It has long been believed that the subdivision of landed property in France dates from the revolution of 1789, and was only the result of that revolution.  The contrary is demonstrable by all the evidence.

The number of landed proprietors at that time amounted to one-half, frequently to two-thirds, of their present number.  Now, all these small landowners were, in reality, ill at ease in the cultivation of their property, and had to bear many charges, or easements, on the land which they could not shake off.

Although what is termed in France the old regime is still very near to us, few persons can now give an accurate answer to the question—­How were the rural districts of France administered before 1789?

In the eighteenth century all the affairs of the parish were managed by a certain number of parochial officers, who were no longer the agents of the manor or domain, and whom the lord no longer selected.  Some of these persons were nominated by the intendant of the province, others were elected by the peasants themselves.  The duty of these authorities was to assess the taxes, to repair the church, to build schools, to convoke and preside over the vestry or parochial meeting.  They attended to the property of the parish, and determined the application of it; they sued, and were sued, in its name.  Not only the lord of the domain no longer conducted the administration of the small local affairs, but he did not even superintend it.  All the parish officers were under the government or control of the central power, as we shall show in a subsequent chapter.  Nay, more; the seigneur had almost ceased to act as the representative of the crown in the parish, or as the channel of communication between the king and his subjects.

If we quit the parish, and examine the constitution of the larger rural districts, we shall find the same state of things.  Nowhere did the nobles conduct public business either in their collective or their individual capacity.  This was peculiar to France.

Of all the peculiar rights of the French nobility, the political element had disappeared; the pecuniary element alone remained, in some instances largely increased.

II.—–­A Shadow of Democracy

Picture to yourself a French peasant of the eighteenth century.  Take him as he is described in the documents—­so passionately enamoured of the soil that he will spend all his savings to purchase it, and to purchase it at any price.  To complete his purchase he must first pay a tax, not to the government, but to other landowners of the neighbourhood, as unconnected as himself with the administration of public affairs, and hardly more influential than he is.  He possesses it at last; his heart is buried in it with the seeds he sows.  This little nook of ground, which is his own in this vast universe, fills him with pride and independence.  But again these neighbours call him from his furrow, and compel him to come to