The other arts—­of music, painting, sculpture and architecture—­had made little progress in France before this period.  Lulli introduced an order of music hitherto unknown.  Poussin was our first great painter in the reign of Louis XIII.; he has had no lack of successors.  French sculpture has excelled in particular.  And we must remark on the extraordinary advance of England during this period.  We can exhaust ourselves in criticising Milton, but not in praising him.  Dryden was equalled by no contemporary, surpassed by no predecessor.  Addison’s “Cato” is the one English tragedy of sustained beauty.  Swift is a perfected Rabelais.  In science, Newton and Halley stand to-day supreme; and Locke is infinitely the superior of Plato.

VI.—­Religion Under Louis XIV.

To preserve at once union with the see of Rome and maintain the liberties of the Gallican Church—­her ancient rights; to make the bishops obedient as subjects without infringing on their rights as bishops; to make them contribute to the needs of the state, without trespassing on their privileges, required a mixture of dexterity which Louis almost always showed.  The one serious and protracted quarrel with Rome arose over the royal claim to appoint bishops, and the papal refusal to recognise the appointments.  The French Assembly of the Clergy supported the king; but the famous Four Resolutions of that body were ultimately repudiated by the bishops personally, with the king’s consent.

Dogmatism is responsible for introducing among men the horror of wars of religion.  Following the Reformation, Calvinism was largely identified with republican principles.  In France, the fierce struggles of Catholics and Huguenots were stayed by the accession of Henry IV.; the Edict of Nantes secured to the former the privileges which their swords had practically won.  But after his time they formed an organisation which led to further contests, ended by Richelieu.

Favoured by Colbert, to Louis the Huguenots were suspect as rebels who had with difficulty been forced to submission.  By him they were subjected to constantly increasing disabilities.  At last the Huguenots disobeyed the edicts against them.  Still harsher measures were adopted; and the climax came in 1685 with the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, following on the “dragonnades” in Alsace.  Protestantism was proscribed.  The effect was not the forcible conversion of the Calvinists. but their wholesale emigration; the transfer to foreign states of an admirable industrial and military population.  Later, the people of the Cevennes rose, and were put down with great difficulty, though Jean Cavalier was their sole leader worthy the name.  In fact, the struggle was really ended by a treaty, and Cavalier died a general of France.

Calvinism is the parent of civil wars.  It shakes the foundations of states.  Jansenism can excite only theological quarrels and wars of the pen.  The Reformation attacked the power of the Church; Jansenism was concerned exclusively with abstract questions.  The Jansenist disputes sprang from problems of grace and predestination, fate and free-will—­that labyrinth in which man holds no clue.