The determination of James to make himself absolute, and to restore Romanism in England, caused leading Englishmen to enter on a conspiracy—­kept secret with extraordinary success—­with William of Orange.  The luckless monarch was abandoned on every hand, and fled from his kingdom to France, an object of universal mockery.  Yet Louis resolved to aid him.  A French force accompanied him to Ireland, and Tourville defeated the united fleets of England and Holland.  At last France was mistress of the seas; but James met with a complete overthrow at the Boyne.  The defeated James, in his flight, hanged men who had taken part against him.  The victorious William proclaimed a general pardon.  Of two such men, it is easy to see which was certain to win.

Louis had already engaged himself in a fresh European war before William’s landing in England.  He still maintained his support of James.  But his newly acquired sea power was severely shaken at La Hogue.  On land, however, Louis’ arms prospered.  The Palatinate was laid waste in a fashion which roused the horror of Europe.  Luxembourg in Flanders, and Catinat in Italy, won the foremost military reputations in Europe.  On the other hand, William proved himself one of those generals who can extract more advantage from a defeat than his enemies from a victory, as Steinkirk and Neerwinden both exemplified.  France, however, succeeded in maintaining a superiority over all her foes, but the strain before long made a peace necessary.  She could not dictate terms as at Nimeguen.  Nevertheless, the treaty of Ryswick, concluded in 1697, secured her substantial benefits.

III.—–­The Spanish Succession

The general pacification was brief.  North Europe was soon aflame with the wars of those remarkable monarchs, Charles XII. and Peter the Great; and the rest of Europe over the Spanish succession.  The mother and wife of Louis were each eldest daughters of a Spanish king; the mother and wife of the Emperor Leopold were their younger sisters.  Austrian and French successions were both barred by renunciations; and the absorption of Spain by either power would upset utterly the balance of power in Europe.  There was no one else with a plausible claim to succeed the childless and dying Charles II.  European diplomacy effected treaties for partitioning the Spanish dominions; but ultimately Charles declared the grandson of Louis his heir.  Louis, in defiance of treaties, accepted the legacy.

The whole weight of England was then thrown on to the side of the Austrian candidate by Louis’ recognition of James Edward Stuart as rightful King of England.  William, before he died, had successfully brought about a grand alliance of European powers against Louis; his death gave the conduct of the war to Marlborough.  Anne was obliged to carry on her brother-in-law’s policy.  Elsewhere, kings make their subjects enter blindly on their own projects; in London the king must enter upon those of his subjects.