On the death of Cardinal Mendoza, for twenty years the monarchs’ chief minister, his place was taken by Ximenes, whose character presented a rare combination of talent and virtue; who proceeded to energetic and much-needed reforms in church discipline.

Not with the same approbation can we view the zeal with which he devoted himself to the extermination of heresy.  The conversion of the Moors to Christianity under the regime of the virtuous Archbishop of Granada was not rapid enough.  Ximenes, in 1500, began with great success a propaganda fortified by liberal presents.  Next he made a holocaust of Arabian MSS.  The alarm and excitement caused by measures in clear violation of treaty produced insurrection; which was calmed down, but was followed by the virtually compulsory conversion of some fifty thousand Moors.

This stirred to revolt the Moors of the Alpuxarras hill-country; crushed with no little difficulty, but great severity, the insurrection broke out anew on the west of Granada.  This time the struggle was savage.  When it was ended the rebels were allowed the alternative of baptism or exile.

Columbus had returned to the New World in 1493 with great powers; but administrative skill was not his strong point, and the first batch of colonists were without discipline.  He returned and went out again, this time with a number of convicts.  Matters became worse.  A very incompetent special commissioner, Bobadilla, was sent with extraordinary powers to set matters right, and he sent Columbus home in chains, to the indignation of the king and queen.  The management of affairs was then entrusted to Ovando, Columbus following later.  It must be observed that the economic results of the great discovery were not immediately remarkable; but the moral effect on Europe at large was incalculable.

On succeeding to the French throne, Louis XII. was prompt to revive the French claims in Italy (1498); but he agreed with Ferdinand on a partition of the kingdom of Naples, a remarkable project of robbery.  The Great Captain was despatched to Sicily, and was soon engaged in conquering Calabria.  It was not long, however, before France and Aragon were quarrelling over the division of the spoil.  In July 1502 war was declared between them in Italy.  The war was varied by set combats in the lists between champions of the opposed nations.

In 1503 a treaty was negotiated by Ferdinand’s son-in-law, the Archduke Philip.  Gonsalvo, however, not recognising instructions received from Philip, gave battle to the French at Cerignola, and won a brilliant victory.  A few days earlier another victory had been won by a second column; and Gonsalvo marched on Naples, which welcomed him.  The two French fortresses commanding it were reduced.  Since Ferdinand refused to ratify Philip’s treaty, a French force entered Roussillon; but retired on Ferdinand’s approach.  The practical effect of the invasion was a demonstration of the new unity of the Spanish kingdom.