fossils known as stigmariae abound in them, and in some cases to such an extent that the clay is one thickly-matted mass of the filamentous rootlets of these fossils.  We have seen how these gradually came to be recognised as the roots of trees which grew in this age, and whose remains have subsequently become metamorphosed into coal, and it is but one step farther to come to the conclusion that these underclays are the ancient soils in which the plants grew.

No sketch of the various beds which go to form the coal-measures would be complete which did not take into account the enormous beds of mountain limestone which form the basis of the whole system, and which in thinner bands are intercalated amongst the upper portion of the system, or the true coal-measures.

Now, limestones are not formed in the same way in which we have seen that sandstones and shales are formed.  The last two mentioned owe their origin to their deposition as sediment in seas, estuaries or lakes, but the masses of limestone which are found in the various geological formations owe their origin to causes other than that of sedimentary deposition.

In carboniferous times there lived numberless creatures which we know nowadays as encrinites.  These, when growing, were fixed to the bed of the ocean, and extended upward in the shape of pliant stems composed of limestone joints or plates; the stem of each encrinite then expanded at the top in the shape of a gorgeous and graceful starfish, possessed of numberless and lengthy arms.  These encrinites grew in such profusion that after death, when the plates of which their stems consisted, became loosened and scattered over the bed of the sea, they accumulated and formed solid beds of limestone.  Besides the encrinites, there were of course other creatures which were able to create the hard parts of their structures by withdrawing lime from the sea, such as foraminifera, shell-fish, and especially corals, so that all these assisted after death in the accumulation of beds of limestone where they had grown and lived.

[Illustration:  FIG. 20.—­Encrinite.]

[Illustration:  FIG. 21.—­Encrinital limestone.]

There is one peculiarity in connection with the habitats of the encrinites and corals which goes some distance in supplying us with a useful clue as to the conditions under which this portion of the carboniferous formation was formed.  These creatures find it a difficult matter, as a rule, to live and secrete their calcareous skeleton in any water but that which is clear, and free from muddy or sandy sediment.  They are therefore not found, generally speaking, where the other deposits which we have considered, are forming, and, as these are always found near the coasts, it follows that the habitats of the creatures referred to must be far out at sea where no muddy sediments, borne by rivers, can reach them.  We can therefore safely come to the conclusion that the large masses of encrinital