When the German branch of the Carlovingian dynasty became extinct the five German nations—­Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Lorraine—­resolved to make the German kingship elective.  For some generations the Crown was bestowed on the Saxon Ottos.  On the extinction of their house in 1024, it was succeeded by a Franconian dynasty which came into collision with the Papacy under Pope Gregory VII.  On the extinction of this line in 1025 Germany became divided between the partisans of the Houses of Swabia and Saxony, the Wibelungs and Welfs,—­the origin of the Hibelines and Guelfs.  The Swabian House, the Hohenstauffen, gained the ascendancy in the person of Frederick Barbarossa.  The lineal representatives of the Saxon Guelfs are found to-day in the House of Brunswick.

The rule of the Swabian House is most intimately connected with Italian history.  In the thirteenth century the principle that the right of election of the emperor lay with seven electors was apparently becoming established.  There were the Archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the Duke of Saxony, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the King of Bohemia, and the Margrave of Brandenburg.  In all other respects, however, several other dukes and princes were at least on an equality with the electors.

In 1272 the election fell on the capable Rudolph of Hapsburg; and for some time after this the emperors were chosen from the Houses of Austria, Bavaria, or Luxemburg.

Disintegration was greatly increased by the practice of the partition of territories among brothers in place of primogeniture.  A preponderating authority was given to the electors by the Golden Bull of Charles IV. in 1355.  The power of the emperor as against the princes was increased, as that of the latter was counterbalanced by the development of free cities.  Considerable reforms were introduced at the close of our period mainly by Maximilian.

The depravity of the Greek empire would have brought it to utter ruin at a much earlier date but for the degeneration which overtook Mohammedanism.  Incidentally the Crusades helped the Byzantine power at first to strengthen its hold on some of its threatened possessions; but the so-called fourth crusade replaced the Greek Empire by a Latin one with no elements of permanency.  When a Greek dynasty was re-established, and the crusading spirit of Western Europe was already dead, the Byzantine Princes were left to cope with the Turks single handed, and the last of the Caesars died heroically when the Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453.

Throughout the early middle ages the Church acquired enormous wealth and Church lands were free from taxation.  It was not till a comparatively late period that the payment of tithes was enforced by law.  Not infrequently the Church was despoiled by violence, but the balance was more than recovered by fraud.  By the time of Charlemagne the clergy were almost exempt from civil jurisdiction and held practically an exclusive authority in matters of religion.  The state, however, maintained its temporal supremacy.  When the strong hand of Charlemagne was removed ecclesiastical influence increased.