Of Genoa’s wars with Pisa and with Venice a detailed account cannot be given.  Of all the northern cities Venice achieved the highest political position; isolated to a great extent from the political problems of the cities of Lombardy and Tuscany, she developed her wealth and her commerce by the sea.  Her splendour may, however, be dated from the taking of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, when she became effectively Queen of the Adriatic and Mistress of the Eastern Mediterranean.  In effect her government was a close oligarchy; possessed of complete control over elections which in theory were originally popular.  The oligarchy reached its highest and narrowest development with the institution of the famous Council of Ten.

Naples and Sicily came under the dominion of Charles of Anjou when he was adopted as Papal champion.  The French supremacy, however, was overthrown when the Sicilians rose and carried out the massacre known as the Sicilian Vespers.  They offered the Crown to the King of Aragon.  It was not till 1409, however, that Sicily was definitely united to the Crown of Aragon and a few years later the same king was able to assert successfully a claim to Naples.

When the Roman empire was tottering the Visigoths established their dominion in Spain.  In 712 Saracen invaders made themselves masters of the greater part of the peninsula.  The Christians were driven into the more northern parts and formed a number of small States out of which were developed the kingdoms of Navarre, Leon and Castille, and Aragon.  Frontier towns acquired large liberties while they were practically responsible for defence against the Moors.  During the thirteenth century great territories were recovered from the Moors; but the advance ceased as the Moors were reduced to the compact kingdom of Granada.  In the fourteenth century the struggle for Castille between Pedro the Cruel and his brother established the house of Trastamare on the throne.  The Crowns of Castille and Aragon were united by the marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand.

The government of the old Gothic monarchy was through the Crown and a Council of Prelates and Nobles.  At a comparatively early date, however, the “Cortes” was attended by deputies from the town, though the number of these was afterwards closely limited.  The principle of taxation through representatives was recognised; and laws could neither be made nor annulled except in the Cortes.  This form of constitutionalism was varied by the claim of the nobles to assume forcible control when matters were conducted in a fashion of which they disapproved.

The union of Castille and Aragon led immediately to the conquest of Granada completed in 1492; an event which in some respects counterbalanced the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks.

III.—­The German Empire and the Papacy