The farming operations in India are rather simple when compared with the corresponding operations in this country; there is evidently not the same necessity for extensive working of the Indian soil as there is for the heavier lands; another reason for the primitive Eastern methods may be the absence of horses.

The ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron.  Bullocks, in teams of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in Fig. 1 where a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process in jute cultivation.  The bullocks draw the plough in much the same way as horses do in this country.

The operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough clods may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the “hengha”—­a piece of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of bullocks.

The breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning process which is performed by what are termed “ladders”; these ladders are made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided with projecting pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect the roots of the previous crop; they are the equivalent of our harrows, and may be used repeatedly during the winter and spring seasons so that a fine tilth may be produced.

When manure is essential, it is applied in the later ploughings, but other large areas have artificial or chemical manures added at similar stages in the process.  Farm-yard manure is preferred, but castor-cake and the water hyacinth—­a weed—­constitute good substitutes.

After the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is sown by hand at the period which appears most suitable for the particular district.  The usual sowing time is from February to the end of May, and even in June in some districts where late crops can be obtained.

[Illustration:  FIG. 1 NATIVES PLOUGHING THE GROUND]

There are early and late varieties of the plants, and a carefully judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the districts for the growing period will not only yield a succession of crops for easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in the selection of seeds for other areas where atmospheric conditions differ.

It is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as uniform a distribution as possible.  The amount of seed used depends partly upon the district, and in general from 10 lbs. to 30 lbs. per acre are sown.  The seed may cost about 8 annas or more per ser (about 2 lbs.).

[Illustration:  FIG. 2 BREAKING UP THE SOIL, OR “LADDERING”]

Plants should be specially cultivated for the production of seed in order to obtain the best results from these seeds for fibre plants.  Many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been collected from plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and often poor plants; they also grow plants year after year on the same soil.  The fibres obtained, as a rule, and as a result of this method of obtaining seeds, gradually deteriorate; much better results accrue when succession of crops and change of seed are carefully attended to.