have long been mismanaged, and an annual deficit of two millions sterling is now a usual feature of the national budget; the foreign debt is upwards of 160 millions.  From the 17th century onwards the once wide empire of the Turks has been gradually dwindling away.  The Turks are essentially a warlike race, and commerce and art have not flourished with them.  Their literature is generally lacking in virility, and is mostly imitative and devoid of national character.

TURNER, CHARLES TENNYSON, an elder brother of Alfred Tennyson; a man of fine nature and delicate susceptibility as a poet, whose friendship and “heart union” with his greater brother is revealed in “Poems by Two Brothers” (1808-1879).

TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM, great English landscape painter, born probably in London, the son of a hairdresser; had little education, and grew up illiterate, as he remained all his days; took to art from his earliest boyhood; soon became acquainted with the artist class, and came under the notice of Sir Joshua Reynolds; began to exhibit at 15; was elected Associate of the Royal Academy at 24, and made an Academician at 28; he took interest in nothing but art, and led the life of a recluse; was never married, and was wedded solely to his work; travelled much in England and on the Continent, sketching all day long; produced in water-colour and oil scene after scene, and object after object, as they impressed him, and represented them as he saw them; being a man of moderate desires he lived economically, and he died rich, leaving his means to found an asylum for distressed artists; of his works there is no space to take note here; yet these are all we know of the man, and they stamp him as a son of genius, who saw visions and dreamed dreams; he early fascinated the young Ruskin; Ruskin’s literary career began with the publication of volume after volume in his praise, and in his enthusiasm he characterised him as the “greatest painter of all time” (1775-1851).  See PERUGINO.

TURNER, SHARON, historian, born in London, where he led a busy life as an attorney; devoted his leisure to historical studies, the first of which were “History of Anglo-Saxons” and “History of England from the Norman Conquest to the Death of Elizabeth,” essays, &c. (1768-1847).

TURPIN, DICK, a felon executed at York for horse-stealing; celebrated for his ride to York in Ainsworth’s “Rookwood.”

TUSCANY (2,274), a department of Italy, formerly a grand-duchy, lies S. and W. of the Apennines, fronting the Tyrrhenian Sea on the W.; mountainous in the N. and E., but otherwise consisting of fertile dale and plain, in which the vine, olive, and fruits abound; silk is an important manufacture, and the marble quarries of Siena are noted; formed a portion of ancient ETRURIA (q. v.); was annexed to Sardinia in 1859, and in 1861 was incorporated in the kingdom of Italy.  Capital, Florence.

TUSCULUM, a ruined Roman city, 15 m.  SE. of Rome; at one time a favourite country resort of wealthy Romans; Brutus, Caesar, Cicero, and others had villas here; was stormed to ruins in 1191; has many interesting remains.