more than the average number of species in any country, the species of these genera have more than the average number of varieties.  In large genera the species are apt to be closely, but unequally, allied together, forming little clusters round certain species.  Species very closely allied to other species apparently have restricted ranges.  In all these several respects the species of large genera present a strong analogy with varieties.  And we can clearly understand these analogies, if species have once existed as varieties, and have thus originated:  whereas, these analogies are utterly inexplicable if each species has been independently created.

We have, also, seen that it is the most flourishing and dominant species of the larger genera which on an average vary most; and varieties, as we shall hereafter see, tend to become converted into new and distinct species.  The larger genera thus tend to become larger; and throughout nature the forms of life which are now dominant tend to become still more dominant by leaving many modified and dominant descendants.  But by steps hereafter to be explained, the larger genera also tend to break up into smaller genera.  And thus, the forms of life throughout the universe become divided into groups subordinate to groups.

CHAPTER 3.  STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE.

Bears on natural selection.  The term used in a wide sense.  Geometrical powers of increase.  Rapid increase of naturalised animals and plants.  Nature of the checks to increase.  Competition universal.  Effects of climate.  Protection from the number of individuals.  Complex relations of all animals and plants throughout nature.  Struggle for life most severe between individuals and varieties of the same species; often severe between species of the same genus.  The relation of organism to organism the most important of all relations.

Before entering on the subject of this chapter, I must make a few preliminary remarks, to show how the struggle for existence bears on Natural Selection.  It has been seen in the last chapter that amongst organic beings in a state of nature there is some individual variability; indeed I am not aware that this has ever been disputed.  It is immaterial for us whether a multitude of doubtful forms be called species or sub-species or varieties; what rank, for instance, the two or three hundred doubtful forms of British plants are entitled to hold, if the existence of any well-marked varieties be admitted.  But the mere existence of individual variability and of some few well-marked varieties, though necessary as the foundation for the work, helps us but little in understanding how species arise in nature.  How have all those exquisite adaptations of one part of the organisation to another part, and to the conditions of life, and of one distinct organic being to another being, been perfected?  We see these beautiful co-adaptations most plainly in the woodpecker and missletoe; and only a little less plainly in the humblest parasite which clings to the hairs of a quadruped or feathers of a bird; in the structure of the beetle which dives through the water; in the plumed seed which is wafted by the gentlest breeze; in short, we see beautiful adaptations everywhere and in every part of the organic world.