[42:] This statement, while true of all integral parts of the Lombard kingdom, must, however, be modified in regard to the great duchies of Spoleto and Beneventum, which were under a different system of internal government from the kingdom of Lombardy proper—­were, in fact, small tributary kingdoms under great dukes enjoying practically royal powers.  The Duchy of Beneventum seems to have been divided into gastaldata, divisions of territory similar to the civitates of Lombardy, but presided over by a gastald instead of by a dux or comes.  In the charter of division made between the dukes of Beneventum and of Salerno in the year 851—­v. Muratori, Ant.  Ital.  Diss.  X.—­are mentioned “integra gastaldata, seu ministeria Tarentum, Latinianum, Cusentia, etc.”  And, at an earlier date, Paulus Diaconus—­De Gest.  Long., Lib.  V., cap. 29—­tells of a certain “Alzeconis Dux de Bulgaris,” to whom Grimoald, Duke of Beneventum, gives “ad habitandum ...  Lepianum, Bovianum et Inferniam, et aliis cum suis territoriis civitates; ipsumque Alzeconem mutato dignitatis nomine, de duce gastaldium vocari praecepit.”

[43:] v. Muratori:  Script.  Rer.  Ital., Tom.  III., Pars II., p. 162D.

[44:] Liutprandi:  Leg.  Lib.  VI., Leg. 29. v. Muratori:  Script.  Rer.  Ital., Tom.  I., Pars II.

[45:] Muratori:  Ant.  Ital.  Diss.  X., Vol.  I., P. I., p. 121.

[46:] Muratori:  Script.  Rer.  Ital., Tom.  III., p. 155A.

[47:] Ed. Rhotari:  Leg. 23 and 24. v. Muratori:  op. cit., Tom.  I., Pars II.

[48:] Liutprandi:  Leg.  Lib.  IV., 7.

[49:] Liutprandi, Leg.  Lib.  IV., 8, says:  “Si homines de sub uno Judice, de duobus tamen Sculdahis causam habuerint, etc.”

[50:] Paulus Diaconus:  De Gest.  Lang., Lib.  VI., 24.

[51:] Muratori:  Ant.  Ital.  Diss.  X., Vol.  I., Parte II., p. 116.

[52:] Ughelli:  Italia Sacra, Tom.  V.

[53:] Caroli Magni, Leg.  Lomb. 36:  “Ut nullus homo in Placito Centenarii neque ad mortem, neque ad libertatem suam amittendam, aut res reddendas vel mancipia judicetur.  Sed ea omnium in praesentia Comitum, vel Missorum nostrorum, judicentur.”

[54:] Liutprandi:  Leg.  Lib.  V., 15.

[55:] Chronicon Fontanellense, Cap.  I. v. Muratori:  Ant.  Ital.  Diss.  X., Vol.  I., Parte I., p. 117.

[56:] Rachis, a decree of—­existing in the Monast. of Bobbio. v. Muratori:  Aut. tal.  Diss., Vol.  I., Part I., p. 118 (Diss.  X.).

[57:] Liutprandi Ticinensis:  Historia, Lib.  I., cap. 10. v. Muratori:  Script.  Rer.  Ital.  II., p. 431. Pertz, Monum.; Script., Tom.  III.

[58:] The opposite sides of the question are ably presented by Savigny:  Geschichte des Roem.  Rechts, etc., Vol.  I., p. 230 et seq. (trans.), and Hegel; Staedteverfassung v.  Italien, etc., I., page 470, note.