These raids had little connection with each other; they were the outcome of individual daring, mere boat’s-crews from one or another of the Northern fiords.  A few of the more persistent gradually grew reluctant to retreat with their booty to the frozen north, and tried to gain a footing on the shores of the fertile and wealthy island they had discovered.  They made temporary camps on the beach, always beside the best harbors, and threw up earthworks round them, or perhaps more lasting forts of stone.  Thus they established a secondary base for raids inland, and a place of refuge whither they might carry the cattle, corn and captives which these raids brought them from the territories of the native clans.  These camps on the shore were the germ of a chain of sea-ports at Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork and Limerick.

From these points raiding went on, and battles were fought in which the raiders were as often vanquished as victorious.  There was little union between the various Norse forts, and indeed we sometimes find them fighting valiantly among themselves.  Meanwhile, the old tribal contest went on everywhere throughout the island.  The south invaded the north and was presently invaded in return.  The east and the west sent expeditions against each other.  Clan went forth against clan, chief against chief, and cattle and captives many times changed hands.  These captives, it would seem, became the agricultural class in each clan, being made to work as the penalty for unsuccessful fighting.  The old tribal life went on unbroken during the whole of this period; nor did it subsequently yield to pressure from without, but rather passed away, during succeeding centuries, as the result of inward growth.  Meanwhile the religious schools continued their work, studying Latin and Greek as well as the old Gaelic, and copying manuscripts as before; and one fruit of their work we see in the gradual conversion of the heathen Norsemen, who were baptized and admitted to the native church.  The old bardic schools likewise continued, so that we have a wealth of native manuscripts belonging to this time, embodying the finest tradition and literature of the earlier pagan ages.

[Illustration:  Giant Head and Dunluce Castle, Co.  Antrim.]

If the Danes and Northern raiders never conquered Ireland, on the other hand they never were expelled.  Through the cessation of the original impulse of unrest which brought them, they gradually ceased to receive accessions from the North, and at the same time the forces of amalgamation were slowly merging them into the national and tribal life of their new home.  Their separate influence grew less and less, but their race continued, and continues to this day in the sea-ports we have named.

We shall presently have to record another series of Norse inroads, this time not directly from the North, but mediately, through France and Britain, and we shall find that much of our subsequent history was influenced by the new elements and principles then added.  We shall do well, therefore, to linger for a moment before this new transition, to gain a clear view of the tendencies of the epoch then closed, the wider significance of that chapter of our nation’s life.