populations in certain portions of the land.  Throughout the continent we therefore find the white, red, and black races in every stage of purity and intermixture.  One result of this great turmoil of conquest and immigration has been that, in certain parts of America, the lines of cleavage of race are so far from coinciding with the lines of cleavage of speech that they run at right angles to them—­as in the four communities of Ontario, Quebec, Havti, and Jamaica.

Each intruding European power, in winning for itself new realms beyond the seas, had to wage a twofold war, overcoming the original inhabitants with one hand, and with the other warding off the assaults of the kindred nations that were bent on the same schemes.  Generally the contests of the latter kind were much the most important.  The victories by which the struggles between the European conquerors themselves were ended deserve lasting commemoration.  Yet, sometimes, even the most important of them, sweeping though they were, were in parts less sweeping than they seemed.  It would be impossible to overestimate the far-reaching effects of the overthrow of the French power in America; but Lower Canada, where the fatal blow was given, itself suffered nothing but a political conquest, which did not interfere in the least with the growth of a French state along both sides of the lower St. Lawrence.  In a somewhat similar way Dutch communities have held their own, and indeed have sprung up in South Africa.

All the European nations touching on the Atlantic seaboard took part in the new work, with very varying success; Germany alone, then rent by many feuds, having no share therein.  Portugal founded a single state, Brazil.  The Scandinavian nations did little:  their chief colony fell under the control of the Dutch.  The English and the Spaniards were the two nations to whom the bulk of the new lands fell:  the former getting much the greater portion.  The conquests of the Spaniards took place in the sixteenth century.  The West Indies and Mexico, Peru and the limitless grass plains of what is now the Argentine Confederation,—­all these and the lands lying between them had been conquered and colonized by the Spaniards before there was a single English settlement in the New World, and while the fleets of the Catholic king still held for him the lordship of the ocean.  Then the cumbrous Spanish vessels succumbed to the attacks of the swift war-ships of Holland and England, and the sun of the Spanish world-dominion set as quickly as it had risen.  Spain at once came to a standstill; it was only here and there that she even extended her rule over a few neighboring Indian tribes, while she was utterly unable to take the offensive against the French, Dutch, and English.  But it is a singular thing that these vigorous and powerful new-comers, who had so quickly put a stop to her further growth, yet wrested from her very little of what was already hers.  They plundered a great many Spanish cities and captured