Section 2.  ORIGIN OF ENGLISH BOROUGHS AND CITIES.—­See Loftie’s History of London, 2 vols., London, 1883; Toulmin Smith’s English Gilds, with Introduction by Lujo Brentano, London, 1870; and the histories of the English Constitution, especially those of Gneist, Stubbs, Taswell-Langmead, and Hannis Taylor.

Section 3.  GOVERNMENT OF CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES.—­J.H.U.  Studies, III., xi.-xii., J.A.  Porter, The City of Washington; IV., iv., W.P.  Holcomb, Pennsylvania Boroughs; IV., x., C.H.  Lovermore, Town and City Government of New Haven; V., i.-ii., Allinson and Penrose, City Government of Philadelphia; V., iii., J.M.  Bugbee, The City Government of Boston; V., iv., M.S.  Snow, The City Government of St. Louis; VII., ii.-iii., B. Moses, Establishment of Municipal Government in San Francisco; VII., iv., W.W.  Howe, Municipal History of New Orleans; also Supplementary Notes, No. 4, Seth Low, The Problem of City Government (compare No. 1, Albert Shaw, Municipal Government in England.) See, also, the supplementary volumes published at Baltimore,—­Levermore’s Republic of New Haven, 1886, Allinson and Penrose’s Philadelphia, 1681-1887:  a History of Municipal Development, 1887.

CHAPTER VI.

THE STATE.

Section 1. The Colonial Governments.

[Sidenote:  Claims of Spain to the possession of North America.] In the year 1600 Spain was the only European nation which had obtained a foothold upon the part of North America now comprised within the United States.  Spain claimed the whole continent on the strength of the bulls of 1493 and 1494, in which Pope Alexander VI. granted her all countries to be discovered to the west of a certain meridian which, happens to pass a little to the east of Newfoundland.  From their first centre in the West Indies the Spaniards had made a lodgment in Florida, at St. Augustine, in 1565; and from Mexico they had in 1605 founded Santa Fe, in what is now the territory of New Mexico.

[Sidenote:  Claims of France and England.] France and England, however, paid little heed to the claim of Spain.  France had her own claim to North America, based on the voyages of discovery made by Verrazano in 1524 and Cartier in 1534, in the course of which New York harbour had been visited and the St. Lawrence partly explored.  England had a still earlier claim, based on the discovery of the North American continent in 1497 by John Cabot.  It presently became apparent that to make such claims of any value, discovery must be followed up by occupation of the country.  Attempts at colonization had been made by French Protestants in Florida in 1562-65, and by the English in North Carolina in 1584-87, but both attempts had failed miserably.  Throughout the sixteenth century French and English sailors kept visiting the Newfoundland fisheries, and by the end of the century the French and English governments had their attention definitely turned to the founding of colonies in North America.