[Sidenote:  Provisional governments; “governors” and “presidents.”] This provisional government lasted about a year.  In the summer of 1775 the people went further.  They fell back upon their charter and proceeded to carry on their government as it had been carried on before 1774, except that the governor was left out altogether.  The people in town-meeting elected their representatives to a general assembly, as of old, and this assembly chose a council of twenty-eight members to sit as an upper house.  The president of the council was the foremost executive officer of the commonwealth, but he had not the powers of a governor.  He was no more the governor than the president of our federal senate is the president of the United States.  The powers of the governor were really vested in the council, which was an executive as well as a legislative body, and the president was its chairman.  Indeed, the title “president” is simply the Latin for “chairman,” he who “presides” or “sits before” an assembly.  In 1775 it was a more modest title than “governor,” and had not the smack of semi-royalty which lingered about the latter.  Governors had made so much trouble that people were distrustful of the office, and at first it was thought that the council would be quite sufficient for the executive work that was to be done.  Several of the states thus organized their governments with a council at the head instead of a governor; and hence in reading about that period one often comes across the title “president,” somewhat loosely used as if equivalent to governor.  Thus in 1787 we find Benjamin Franklin called “president of Pennsylvania,” meaning “president of the council of Pennsylvania.”  But this arrangement did not prove satisfactory and did not last long.  It soon appeared that for executive work one man is better than a group of men.  In Massachusetts, in 1780, the old charter was replaced by a new written constitution, under which was formed the state government which, with some emendations in detail, has continued to the present day.  Before the end of the eighteenth century all the states except Connecticut and Rhode Island, which, had always been practically Independent, thus remodelled their governments.

[Sidenote:  Origin of the Senates.] These changes, however, were very conservative.  The old form of government was closely followed.  First there was the governor, elected in some states by the legislature, in others by the people.  Then there was the two-chambered legislature, of which the lower house was the same institution after the Revolution that it had been before.  The upper house, or council, was retained, but in a somewhat altered form.  The Americans had been used to having the acts of their popular assemblies reviewed by a council, and so they retained this revisory body as an upper house.  But the fashion of copying names and titles from the ancient Roman republic was then prevalent, and accordingly the upper house was called a Senate.  There was a higher property