ideas of memory receive a common name.  Thus abstract general ideas and generic concepts arise, to which nothing real corresponds, for in reality particulars alone exist.  The universal is a human artefact.  The combination of words into propositions, being an addition or subtraction of arbitrary symbols or marks, is called judgment; the combination of propositions into syllogisms, inference; the united body of true or demonstrated principles, science—­hence mathematics is the type of all knowledge.  In short, thought is nothing but calculation and the words with which we operate are mere counters; he who takes counters for coin is a fool.  Animals lack reason, i.e., this power of combining artificial symbols.

Hobbes’s theory of the will is characterized by the same! sensationalism and mechanism as his theory of knowledge.  All spiritual events originate in impressions of sense.  Man responds to the action of objects by a double reaction, adding to the theoretical reaction of sensation a practical one in the feeling of pleasure or pain (according as the impression furthers or hinders the vital function), whence desire and aversion follow in respect to future experience.  Further developments from the feelings experienced at the signs of honor (the acknowledgment of superior power) and the contrary, are the affections of pride, courage, anger, of shame and repentance, of hope and love, of pity, etc.  Deliberation is the alternation of different appetites; the final, victorious one which immediately precedes action is called will.  Freedom cannot be predicated of the will, but only of the action, and even in this case it means simply the absence of external restraints, the procedure of the action from the will of the agent; while the action is necessary nevertheless.  Every motion is the inevitable result of the sum of the preceding (including cerebral) motions.

Things which we desire are termed good, and those which we shun, evil.  Nothing is good per se or absolutely, but only relatively, for a given person, place, time, or set of circumstances.  Different things are good to different men, and there is no objective, universal rule of good and evil, so long as men are considered as individuals, apart from society.  A definite criterion of the good is first reached in the state:  that is right which the law permits, that wrong which it forbids; good means that which is conducive to the general welfare.  In the state of nature nothing is forbidden; nature gives every man a right to everything, and right is coextensive with might.  What, then, induces man to abandon the state of nature and enter the state of citizenship?  The opinion of Aristotle and Grotius that the state originates in the social impulse is false; for man is essentially not social, but selfish, and nothing but regard for his own interests bids him seek the protection of the state; the civil commonwealth is an artificial product of fear and prudence.  The