did not succeed in fusing the rationalistic elements received from foreign sources with these native tendencies, so as to produce a unified system.  As Grimm has correctly shown (Zur Geschichte des Erkenntnissproblems), there is an unreconciled contradiction between the dependence of thought on experience, which he does not give up, and the universal validity of the truths derived from pure reason, which he asserts on the basis of the mathematico-philosophical doctrines of the Continent.  A similar unmediated dualism will meet us in Locke also.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was repelled while a student at Oxford by Scholastic methods in thought, with which he agreed only in their nominalistic results (there are no universals except names).  During repeated sojourns in Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Gassendi, Mersenne, and Descartes, he devoted himself to the study of mathematics, and was greatly influenced by the doctrines of Galileo; while the disorders of the English revolution led him to embrace an absolutist theory of the state.  His chief works were his politics, under the title Leviathan, 1651, and his Elementa Philosophiae, in three parts (De Corpore, De Homine, De Cive), of which the third, De Cive, appeared first (in Latin; in briefer form and anonymously, 1642, enlarged 1647), the first, De Corpore, in 1655, and the second, De Homine, in 1658.  These had been preceded by two books [1] written, like the two last parts of the Elements, in English:  On Human Nature and De Corpore Politico, composed 1640, printed without the author’s consent in 1650.  Besides these he wrote two treatises Of Liberty and Necessity, 1646 and 1654, and prepared, 1668, a collected edition of his works (in Latin).  In Molesworth’s edition, 1839-45, the Latin works occupy five volumes and the English eleven.[2]

[Footnote 1:  Or rather one; the treatise On Human Nature consists of the first thirteen chapters of the work, Elements of Law, Natural and Politic, and the De Corpore Politico of the remainder.]

[Footnote 2:  Cf. on Hobbes, G.C.  Robertson (Blackwood’s Philosophical Classics, vol. x.), 1886; Toennies in the Vierteljahrsschrift fuer wissenschaftliche Philosophie, Jahrg. 3-5, 1879-81.]

Philosophy is formally defined by Hobbes as knowledge of effects from causes and causes from effects by means of legitimate rational inference.  This implies the equal validity of the deductive and inductive methods,—­while Bacon had proclaimed the latter the most important instrument of knowledge,—­as well as the exclusion of theology based on revelation from the domain of science.  Philosophy is objectively defined as the theory of body and motion:  all that exists is body; all that occurs, motion.  Everything real is corporeal; this holds of points, lines, and surfaces, which as the limits of body cannot be incorporeal, as well as of the mind and of God.