has discarded transcendent causes and learned how to get along with immanent causes, so ethics also must endeavor to establish the worth of moral good without excursions into the suprasensible.  The ethical obligations arise naturally from human relations, from earthly needs.  The third volume of Laas’s work differs from the earlier ones by conceding the rank of facts to the principles of logic as well as to perception.  Aloys Riehl opposes the theory of knowledge (which starts from the fundamental fact of sensation) as scientific philosophy to metaphysics as unscientific, and banishes the doctrine of the practical ideals from the realm of science into the region of religion and art.  Richard Avenarius defends the principle of “pure experience.”  Sensation, which is all that is left as objectively given after the removal of the subjective additions, constitutes the content, and motion the form of being.

[Footnote 1:  Laas:  Idealism and Positivism, 1879-84.  Riehl:  Philosophical Criticism, 1876-87; Address On Scientific and Unscientific Philosophy, 1883.  Avenarius (p. 598):  Philosophy as Thought concerning the World according to the Principle of Least Work, 1876; Critique of Pure Experience, vol. i. 1888, vol. ii. 1890; Man’s Concept of the World, 1891.  C. Goering (died 1879; System of Critical Philosophy, 1875) may also be placed here.]

With the neo-Kantians and the positivists there is associated, thirdly, a coherent group of noetical thinkers, who, rejecting extramental elements of every kind, look on all conceivable being as merely a conscious content.  This monism of consciousness is advocated by W. Schuppe of Greifswald (born 1836; Noetical Logic, 1878), J. Rehmke, also of Greifswald (The World as Percept and Concept, 1880; “The Question of the Soul” in vol. ii. of the Zeitschrift fuer Psychologie, 1891), A. von Leclair (Contributions to a Monistic Theory of Knowledge, 1882), and R. von Schubert-Soldern (Foundations of a Theory of Knowledge, 1884; On the Transcendence of Object and Subject, 1882; Foundations for an Ethics, 1887).  J. Bergmann[1] in Marburg (born 1840) occupies a kindred position.

[Footnote 1:  Bergmann:  Outlines of a Theory of Consciousness, 1870; Pure Logic, 1879; Being and Knowing, 1880; The Fundamental Problems of Logic, 1882; On the Right, 1883; Lectures on Metaphysics, 1886; On the Beautiful, 1887; History of Philosophy, vol. i., Pre-Kantian Philosophy, 1892.]