%2.  Realism:  Herbart.%

Johann Friedrich Herbart was scientifically the most important among the philosophers of the opposition.  Herbart was born at Oldenburg in 1776, the son of a councilor of justice, and had already become acquainted with the systems of Wolff and Kant before he entered the University of Jena in 1794.  In 1796 he handed in to his instructor Fichte a critique of two of Schelling’s treatises, in which the youthful thinker already broke away from idealism.  While a private tutor in Switzerland he made the acquaintance of Pestalozzi.  In 1802 he habilitated in Goettingen, where, in 1805, he was promoted to a professorship extraordinary; while in 1809 he received the professorship in Koenigsberg once held by Kant, and later by W. Tr.  Krug (died 1842).  He died in 1841 at Goettingen, whither he had been recalled in 1833.  His Collected Works were published in twelve volumes, 1850-52 (reprinted 1883 seq.), by his pupil Hartenstein, who has also given an excellent exposition of his master’s system in his Probleme und Grundlehren der allgemeinen Metaphysik, 1836, and his Grundbegriffe der ethischen Wissenschaften, 1844; a new edition, in chronological order, and under the editorship of K. Kehrbach, began to appear in 1882, or rather 1887, and has now advanced to the fourth volume, 1891.  Herbart’s chief works were written during his Koenigsberg residence:  the Text-book of Introduction to Philosophy, 1813, 4th ed., 1837 (very valuable as an introduction to Herbartian modes of thought); General Metaphysics, 1829 (preceded in 1806 and 1808 by The Principal Points in Metaphysics, with a supplement, The Principal Points in Logic); Text-book of Psychology,[1] 1816, 2d ed., 1834; On the Possibility and Necessity of applying Mathematics to Psychology, 1822; Psychology as a Science, 1824-25.  The two works on ethics, which were widely separated in time, were, on the other hand, written in Goettingen:  General Practical Philosophy, 1808; Analytical Examination of Natural Right and of Morals, 1836.  To these may be added a Discourse on Evil, 1817; Letters on the Doctrine of the Freedom of the Human Will, 1836; and the Brief Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 1831, 2d ed., 1841.  His works on education and instruction, whose influence and value perhaps exceed those of his philosophical achievements (collected editions of the pedagogical works have been prepared by O. Willmann, 1873-75, 2d ed., 1880; and by Bartholomaei), extended through his whole life.  Besides pedagogics, psychology was the chief sphere of his services.

[Footnote 1:  English translation by M.K.  Smith, 1891.]