and astonishment as to what you had best say first, or what argument it is desirable to reply to first—­for when a hearer sees the man whom the opposite party believe to be thrown into perplexity by their speech prepared with unshaken firmness to reply to it, he is generally apt to think that he has assented to what has been said without sufficient consideration, rather than that the present speaker is confident without due grounds.  But if fatigue has alienated the mind of the hearer from your cause, then it is advantageous to promise to speak more briefly than you had been prepared to speak; and that you will not imitate your adversary.

If the case admit of it, it is not disadvantageous to begin with some new topic, or with some one which may excite laughter; or with some argument which has arisen from the present moment; of which kind are any sudden noise or exclamation; or with something which you have already prepared, which may embrace some apologue, or fable, or other laughable circumstance.  Or, if the dignity of the subject shall seem inconsistent with jesting, in that case it is not disadvantageous to throw in something sad, or novel, or terrible.  For as satiety of food and disgust is either relieved by some rather bitter taste, or is at times appeased by a sweet taste; so a mind weary with listening is either reinstated in its strength by astonishment, or else is refreshed by laughter.

XVIII.  And these are pretty nearly the main things which it appeared desirable to say separately concerning the exordium of a speech, and the topics which an orator should use for the purpose of insinuating himself into the good grace of his hearers.  And now it seems desirable to lay down some brief rules which may apply to both in common.

An exordium ought to have a great deal of sententiousness and gravity in it, and altogether to embrace all things which have a reference to dignity; because that is the most desirable effect to be produced which in the greatest degree recommends the speaker to his hearer.  It should contain very little brilliancy, or wit, or elegance of expression, because from these qualities there always arises a suspicion of preparation and artificial diligence:  and that is an idea which, above all others takes away credit from a speech, and authority from a speaker.  But the following are the most ordinary faults to be found in an exordium, and those it is above all things desirable to avoid.  It must not be vulgar, common, easily changed, long, unconnected, borrowed, nor must it violate received rules.  What I mean by vulgar, is one which may be so adapted to numerous causes as to appear to suit them all.  That is common, which appears to be able to be adapted no less to one side of the argument than to the other.  That is easily changed, which with a slight alteration may be advanced by the adversary on the other side of the question.  That is long, which is spun out by a superfluity of words or sentences