[Illustration:  Fig. 8.—­Charles, eldest Son of King Pepin, receives the News of the Death of his Father and the Great Feudalists offer him the Crown.—­Costumes of the Court of Burgundy in the Fifteenth Century.—­Fac-simile of a Miniature of the “History of the Emperors” (Library of the Arsenal).]

[Illustration:  Fig. 9.  Portrait of Charlemagne, whom the Song of Roland names the King with the Grizzly Beard.—­Fac-simile of an Engraving of the End of the Sixteenth Century.]

The revolution in society which took place under the Carlovingian dynasty had for its especial object that of rendering territorial what was formerly personal, and, as it were, of destroying personality in matters of government.

The usurpation of lands by the great having been thus limited by the influence of the lesser holders, everybody tried to become the holder of land.  Its possession then formed the basis of social position, and, as a consequence, individual servitude became lessened, and society assumed a more stable condition.  The ancient laws of wandering tribes fell into disuse; and at the same time many distinctions of caste and race disappeared, as they were incompatible with the new order of things.  As there were no more Salians, Ripuarians, nor Visigoths among the free men, so there were no more colons, laeti, nor slaves amongst those deprived of liberty.

[Illustrations:  Figs. 10 and 11.—­Present State of the Feudal Castle of Chateau-Gaillard aux Andelys, which was considered one of the strongest Castles of France in the Middle Ages, and was rebuilt in the Twelfth Century by Richard Coeur de Lion.]

Heads of families, on becoming attached to the soil, naturally had other wants and other customs than those which they had delighted in when they were only the chiefs of wandering adventurers.  The strength of their followers was not now so important to them as the security of their castles.  Fortresses took the place of armed bodies; and at this time, every one who wished to keep what he had, entrenched himself to the best of his ability at his own residence.  The banks of rivers, elevated positions, and all inaccessible heights, were occupied by towers and castles, surrounded by ditches, which served as strongholds to the lords of the soil. (Figs. 10 and 11).  These places of defence soon became points for attack.  Out of danger at home, many of the nobles kept watch like birds of prey on the surrounding country, and were always ready to fall, not only upon their enemies, but also on their neighbours, in the hope either of robbing them when off their guard, or of obtaining a ransom for any unwary traveller who might fall into their hands.  Everywhere society was in ambuscade, and waged civil war—­individual against individual—­without peace or mercy.  Such was the reign of feudalism.  It is unnecessary to point out how this system of perpetual petty warfare tended to reduce the power of centralisation, and