First. 1 inch equals 100.

Second. 1/100.

Third.  As shown in figure 3 (section 1).

These expressions mean one and the same thing.  A variation of the first method on a map of different scale might be:  1 inch equals 1 mile.  Since a mile contains 63,360 inches, then the real distance between any two points shown on the map is 63,360 times the map distance.

To find the ground distance by the third kind of scale, copy it on the edge of a slip of paper, apply the slip directly to the map, and read off the distance; and so we answer the question, “How far?”

After direction and distance comes the interpretation of the signs, symbols, and abbreviations on the map.  Those authorized are given in section 2 (a reprint of Appendix 4, Field Service Regulations, 1914); but there are a good many other conventional signs in common use.  A key to them is published by the War Department, and is called “Conventional Signs, United States Army.”  From these you read at once the natural and artificial features of the country shown on your map.  It should be borne in mind that these conventional signs are not necessarily drawn to scale, as are the distances.  They show the position and outline of the features rather than the size.  This, for the reason that many of the features shown, if drawn to scale, would be so small that one could not make them out except with a magnifying glass.  If the exact dimensions are of any importance, they will be written in figures on the map.  For instances, bridges.

In addition to te above conventional signs, we have CONTOURS to show the elevations, depressions, slope, and shape of the ground.  Abroad, HACHURES are much used, but they serve only to indicate elevation, and, as compared to contours, are of little value.  Contours resemble the lines shown in figure 4 (section 1)

Hachures are shown in figure 5 (section 1), and may be found on any European map.  They simply show slopes, and, when carefully drawn, show steeper slopes by heavier shading and gentler slopes by the fainter hachures.  The crest of the mountain is within the hachures. (See fig. 5, section 1.)

Contours.—­A certain student, when asked by his instructor to define “space,” said:  “I have it, sir, in my head, but can not put it into words.”  The Instructor replied:  “I suppose that under those circumstances, Mr. ——­, the definition really would not help much.”  And so it is with contours—­the definition does not help much if you know a contour when you meet it on a map.  For examples of contours, turn to the map in section 2 and, starting at the United States penitentiary, note the smooth, flowing, irregular curved lines marked 880, 860, 840, 840, 860, etc.

The only other lines on the map that at all resemble contours are stream lines, like “Corral Creek,” but the stream lines are readily distinguished from contours by the fact that they cross the contours squarely, while the contours run approximately parallel to each other.  Note the stream line just to the west of South Merritt Hill.