they were again sent with other refuse to the market.(6) The farm-buildings (-villa rustica-) supplied at once stabling for the cattle, storehouses for the produce, and a dwelling for the steward and the slaves; while a separate country house (-villa urbana-) for the master was frequently erected on the estate.  Every slave, even the steward himself, had all the necessaries of life delivered to him on the master’s behalf at certain times and according to fixed rates; and upon these he had to subsist.  He received in this way clothes and shoes, which were purchased in the market, and which the recipients had merely to keep in repair; a quantity of wheat monthly, which each had to grind for himself; as also salt, olives or salted fish to form a relish to their food, wine, and oil.  The quantity was adjusted according to the work; on which account the steward, who had easier work than the common slaves, got scantier measure than these.  The stewardess attended to all the baking and cooking; and all partook of the same fare.  It was not the ordinary practice to place chains on the slaves; but when any one had incurred punishment or was thought likely to attempt an escape, he was set to work in chains and was shut up during the night in the slaves’ prison.(7)

Other Labourers

Ordinarily these slaves belonging to the estate were sufficient; in case of need neighbours, as a matter of course, helped each other with their slaves for day’s wages.  Otherwise labourers from without were not usually employed, except in peculiarly unhealthy districts, where it was found advantageous to limit the amount of slaves and to employ hired persons in their room, and for the ingathering of the harvest, for which the regular supply of labour on the farm did not suffice.  At the corn and hay harvests they took in hired reapers, who often instead of wages received from the sixth to the ninth sheaf of the produce reaped, or, if they also thrashed, the fifth of the grain:  Umbrian labourers, for instance, went annually in great numbers to the vale of Rieti, to help to gather in the harvest there.  The grape and olive harvest was ordinarily let to a contractor, who by means of his men—­hired free labourers, or slaves of his own or of others—­ conducted the gleaning and pressing under the inspection of some persons appointed by the landlord for the purpose, and delivered the produce to the master;(8) very frequently the landlord sold the harvest on the tree or branch, and left the purchaser to look after the ingathering.

Spirit of the System

The whole system was pervaded by the utter regardless-ness characteristic of the power of capital.  Slaves and cattle stood on the same level; a good watchdog, it is said in a Roman writer on agriculture, must not be on too friendly terms with his “fellow-slaves.”  The slave and the ox were fed properly so long as they could work, because it would not have been good economy to let them starve; and they were sold like a worn-out