pasture to a large sheep-owner, or to hand over his flock of sheep to a lessee who was to share the produce, stipulating for the delivery of a certain number of lambs and of a certain quantity of cheese and milk.  Swine—­Cato assigns to a large estate ten sties—­poultry, and pigeons were kept in the farmyard, and fed as there was need; and, where opportunity offered, a small hare-preserve and a fish-pond were constructed—­the modest commencement of that nursing and rearing of game and fish which was afterwards prosecuted to so enormous an extent.

Means of Husbandry
Cattle

The labours of the field were performed by means of oxen which were employed for ploughing, and of asses, which were used specially for the carriage of manure and for driving the mill; perhaps a horse also was kept, apparently for the use of the master.  These animals were not reared on the estate, but were purchased; oxen and horses at least were generally castrated.  Cato assigns to an estate of 100 -jugera-one, to one of 240 -jugera- three, yoke of oxen; a later writer on agriculture, Saserna, assigns two yoke to the 200 -jugera-.  Three asses were, according to Cato’s estimate, required for the smaller, and four for the larger, estate.

Slaves

The human labour on the farm was regularly performed by slaves.  At the head of the body of slaves on the estate (-familia rustica-) stood the steward (-vilicus-, from -villa-), who received and expended, bought and sold, went to obtain the instructions of the landlord, and in his absence issued orders and administered punishment.  Under him were placed the stewardess (-vilica-) who took charge of the house, kitchen and larder, poultry-yard and dovecot:  a number of ploughmen (-bubulci-) and common serfs, an ass-driver, a swineherd, and, where a flock of sheep was kept, a shepherd.  The number, of course, varied according to the method of husbandry pursued.  An arable estate of 200 -jugera- without orchards was estimated to require two ploughmen and six serfs:  a similar estate with two orchards two plough-men and nine serfs; an estate of 240 -jugera- with olive plantations and sheep, three ploughmen, five serfs, and three herdsmen.  A vineyard naturally required a larger expenditure of labour:  an estate of 100 -jugera-with vine-plantations was supplied with one ploughman, eleven serfs, and two herdsmen.  The steward of course occupied a freer position than the other slaves:  the treatise of Mago advised that he should be allowed to marry, to rear children, and to have funds of his own, and Cato advises that he should be married to the stewardess; he alone had some prospect, in the event of good behaviour, of obtaining liberty from his master.  In other respects all formed a common household.  The slaves were, like the larger cattle, not bred on the estate, but purchased at an age capable of labour in the slave-market; and, when through age or infirmity they had become incapable of working,