All this philosophical speculation prepared

[26] the way for the educationalists who were known as the Sophists.  They begin to appear after the middle of the fifth century.  They worked here and there throughout Greece, constantly travelling, training young men for public life, and teaching them to use their reason.  As educators they had practical ends in view.  They turned away from the problems of the physical universe to the problems of human life—­morality and polities.  Here they were confronted with the difficulty of distinguishing between truth and error, and the ablest of them investigated the nature of knowledge, the method of reason—­logic—­ and the instrument of reason—­speech.  Whatever their particular theories might be, their general spirit was that of free inquiry and discussion.  They sought to test everything by reason.  The second half of the fifth century might be called the age of Illumination.

It may be remarked that the knowledge of foreign countries which the Greeks had acquired had a considerable effect in promoting a sceptical attitude towards authority.  When a man is acquainted only with the habits of his own country, they seem so much a matter of course that he ascribes them to nature, but when he travels abroad and finds totally different habits and standards of conduct prevailing, he begins to understand

[27] the power of custom; and learns that morality and religion are matters of latitude.  This discovery tends to weaken authority, and to raise disquieting reflections, as in the case of one who, brought up as a Christian, comes to realize that, if he had been born on the Ganges or the Euphrates, he would have firmly believed in entirely different dogmas.

Of course these movements of intellectual freedom were, as in all ages, confined to the minority.  Everywhere the masses were exceedingly superstitious.  They believed that the safety of their cities depended on the good-will of their gods.  If this superstitious spirit were alarmed, there was always a danger that philosophical speculations might be persecuted.  And this occurred in Athens.  About the middle of the fifth century Athens had not only become the most powerful State in Greece, but was also taking the highest place in literature and art.  She was a full-fledged democracy.  Political discussion was perfectly free.  At this time she was guided by the statesman Pericles, who was personally a freethinker, or at least was in touch with all the subversive speculations of the day.  He was especially intimate with the philosopher Anaxagoras who had come from Ionia to teach at Athens.  In regard to the popular gods Anaxagoras was a thorough-going

[28] unbeliever.  The political enemies of Pericles struck at him by attacking his friend.  They introduced and carried a blasphemy law, to the effect that unbelievers and those who taught theories about the celestial world might be impeached.  It was easy to prove that Anaxagoras was a blasphemer who taught that the gods were abstractions and that the sun, to which the ordinary Athenian said prayers morning and evening, was a mass of flaming matter.  The influence of Pericles saved him from death; he was heavily fined and left Athens for Lampsacus, where he was treated with consideration and honour.