in a totally different light.  For him there was no question of the aggrandisement of Piedmont, though he no doubt felt pride in the thought that the House of Savoy was to possess the throne of Italy.  Austria was expelled from Italy in 1860, not that Piedmont might take her place as ruler of the peninsula, but that Piedmont might disappear in the larger whole of an emancipated Italy.  Austria was expelled from Germany in 1866 in order that Prussia might rule undisturbed.  Thus, though the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 was an essential step in the foundation of the modern German State, its motives and results were not in the least comparable to those which inspired and followed the Italian War of Liberation in 1859-60.  In the first place the Austrians were not foreigners but Germans, whom it was necessary for reasons of State not of nationality to place outside the rest of Germany.  Germany had, in fact, to choose between national unity and State unity; and she chose the latter, partly because Prussia really decided the matter for her, partly because she realised that the establishment of a strong German State was the essential prelude to the creation of a strong united nation.  Austria had to be shut out in 1866 in order that she might be received back again at some later date on Germany’s own terms.  In the second place Austria was in no sense the oppressor of Germany as she had been of Italy.  She was simply the presiding member of the German Confederation who, as the rival of Prussia, as the inheritor of the mediaeval imperial tradition, as the ruler of millions of non-Germanic people, would have rendered the problem of German unification almost insoluble.  It was therefore necessary to get rid of her as gently and as politely as possible.  After the crushing victory at Koeniggraetz, Bismarck treated Prussia’s ancient foe with extraordinary leniency; for he had already planned the Dual Alliance in his mind; knowing as he did that, though in Germany Austria might be an inconvenient rival to Prussia, in Europe she was the indispensable ally of Germany.  And so, though the ramshackle old German imperial castle was divided in two, and the northern portion, at any rate, brought thoroughly up to date, the neighbours still lived side by side in a “semi-detached” kind of way.  It would be a mistake then to call the war of 1866 a war of deliverance.  Indeed, since the defeat of Napoleon at Leipzig, Germany has had no such war.  That is in a great measure her national tragedy.  Italian nationalism was spiritualised by the very fact that it had to struggle for decades against a foreign oppressor, and the foundations of her unity were laid on the heroic memories of her efforts to expel the intruder.  This spiritualisation, these heroic memories were Germany’s also in 1813-14, but the opportunity of unification was allowed to slip by, and when the task was performed fifty years later it was through quite other means and in a very different spirit.  And yet, though there was no