and mission as a nation, she began to send her armies across her frontiers to carry the gospel of her peculiar “culture” to other and more benighted nations:  the result was occupation, which degenerated into conquest.  Despotism within and conquest without, both being summed up in the one word Napoleon—­such was the fate of the Mother of Liberty, who had loved her child “not wisely but too well.”  Yet Napoleonism was a very necessary stage in the development of modern Europe.  It was the tramp of the invader which did more than anything else to awake sleeping nationalism all over the Continent; it was before the roar of Napoleon’s cannon that the artificial boundaries which had divided peoples crumbled to dust.  Napoleon cleared the ground, and even did something toward laying the foundations of the great modern Nation-States, Germany and Italy.  What Napoleon did for Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century, Germany, the Napoleon-State among nations to-day, is doing for Europe at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Sec.3. The Congress of Vienna and the International Idea.—­The overthrow of Napoleon was due in a large measure to the spirit of nationalism which his conquests had evoked against him among the various peoples of Europe; the rewards of that overthrow, however, were reaped not by the peoples, but by the dynasties and State-systems of the old regime.  The Congress of the Powers which met at Vienna in 1814 to resettle the map of Europe, after the upheavals and wars of the previous twenty-five years, was a terrible disappointment; and we, who are now hopefully looking forward to a similar Congress at the end of the present war, cannot do better than study the great failure of 1814, and take warning from it.  The phrases which heralded the approaching Congress were curiously and disquietingly similar to those on the lips of our public men and journalists to-day when they speak of the “settlement” before us.  “The Parliament of Man, the Federation of the World,” which had become a remote dream when Tennyson first coined the expression in 1842, seemed in 1814 on the eve of accomplishment.  The work of the Congress was to be no less than “the reconstruction of the moral order,” “the regeneration of the political system of Europe,” the establishment of “an enduring peace founded on a just redistribution of political forces,” the institution of an effective and a permanent international tribunal, the encouragement of the growth of representative institutions, and, last but not least, an arrangement between the Powers for a gradual and systematic disarmament.  “It seemed,” writes Sir A.W.  Ward, “as if the states composing the European family, free once more to take counsel together on terms of independence, were also free to determine their own destinies."[1] The Congress of Vienna was to inaugurate a New Era.  Such of these views, however, as pointed in a democratic or nationalistic direction represented the expectations