Now there are two kinds of hardening, one of the understanding, the other of the sense of shame, when a man is resolved not to assent to what is manifest nor to desist from contradictions.  Most of us are afraid of mortification of the body, and would contrive all means to avoid such a thing, but we care not about the soul’s mortification.  And indeed with regard to the soul, if a man be in such a state as not to apprehend anything, or understand at all, we think that he is in a bad condition; but if the sense of shame and modesty are deadened, this we call even power (or strength).

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Of Providence.—­From everything, which is or happens in the world, it is easy to praise Providence, if a man possesses these two qualities:  the faculty of seeing what belongs and happens to all persons and things, and a grateful disposition.  If he does not possess these two qualities, one man will not see the use of things which are and which happen:  another will not be thankful for them, even if he does know them.  If God had made colors, but had not made the faculty of seeing them, what would have been their use?  None at all.  On the other hand, if he had made the faculty of vision, but had not made objects such as to fall under the faculty, what in that case also would have been the use of it?  None at all.  Well, suppose that he had made both, but had not made light?  In that case, also, they would have been of no use.  Who is it then who has fitted this to that and that to this?

What, then, are these things done in us only?  Many, indeed, in us only, of which the rational animal had peculiar need; but you will find many common to us with irrational animals.  Do they then understand what is done?  By no means.  For use is one thing, and understanding is another; God had need of irrational animals to make use of appearances, but of us to understand the use of appearances.  It is therefore enough for them to eat and to drink, and to copulate, and to do all the other things which they severally do.  But for us, to whom he has given also the intellectual faculty, these things are not sufficient; for unless we act in a proper and orderly manner, and conformably to the nature and constitution of each thing, we shall never attain our true end.  For where the constitutions of living beings are different, there also the acts and the ends are different.  In those animals then whose constitution is adapted only to use, use alone is enough; but in an animal (man), which has also the power of understanding the use, unless there be the due exercise of the understanding, he will never attain his proper end.  Well then God constitutes every animal, one to be eaten, another to serve for agriculture, another to supply cheese, and another for some like use; for which purposes what need is there to understand appearances and to be able to distinguish them?  But God has introduced man to be a spectator of God and of his works; and not only a spectator of them, but an interpreter.  For this reason it is shameful for man to begin and to end where irrational animals do; but rather he ought to begin where they begin, and to end where nature ends in us; and nature ends in contemplation and understanding, and in a way of life conformable to nature.  Take care then not to die without having been spectators of these things.