central government, protection to infant manufactures, banks and tariffs,—­in short, whatever would contribute to the ascendency of intellect and property; the Republicans, largely made up of small farmers, mechanics, and laboring people, desired the extension of the right of suffrage, the prosperity of agriculturists, and State ascendency, and were fearful of the encroachments of the general government upon the reserved rights of the States and the people at large.

But the leaders of this “people’s party,” men like the Clintons of the State of New York, were sometimes as aristocratic in their social life as the leaders of the Federalists.  During the Revolutionary War the only parties were those who aimed at national independence, and the Royalists, or Tories, who did not wish to sever their connection with the mother-country; but these Tories had no political influence when the government was established under Washington.  During his first term of office there was ostensibly but one party.  It was not until his second term that there were marked divisions.  Then public opinion was divided between those who followed Hamilton, Jay, and Adams, and those who looked up to Jefferson, and perhaps Madison, as leaders in the lines to be pursued by the general government in reference to banks, internal improvements, commercial tariffs, the extension of the suffrage, the army and navy, and other subjects.

The quarrels and animosities between these two parties in that early day have never been exceeded in bitterness.  Ministers preached political sermons; the newspapers indulged in unrestricted abuse of public men.  The air was full of political slanders, lies, and misrepresentations.  Family ties were sundered, and old friendships were broken.  The Federalists were distrustful of the French Revolution, and, finally, hostile to it, while the Republican-Democrats were its violent advocates.  In New York nearly every Episcopalian was a Federalist, and in Massachusetts and Connecticut nearly every Congregational minister.  Freethinkers in religion were generally Democrats, as the party gradually came to be called.  Farmers were pretty evenly divided; but their “hired hands” were Democrats, and so were most immigrants.

Whatever the difference of opinion among the contending parties, however, they were sincere and earnest, and equally patriotic.  The people selected for office those whom they deemed most capable, or those who would be most useful to the parties representing their political views.  It never occurred to the people of either party to vote with the view of advancing their own selfish and private interests.  If it was proposed to erect a public building, or dig a canal, or construct an aqueduct, they would vote for or against it according to their notions of public utility.  They never dreamed of the spoils of jobbery.  In other words, the contractors and “bosses” did not say to the people, “If you will vote for me as the superintendent of this public improvement,