It required an uncommon degree of patriotic ardor on the part of the mass of the people to follow leaders like Garibaldi and Mazzini,—­one of whom was rash to audacity, and the other visionary; and neither of whom had the confidence of the government at Turin, which, however, was not disposed to throw cold water on their enterprises or seriously to interfere with them.  One thing is clear,—­that had not the Italians, on the whole, been ripe for revolution it could not have succeeded; as in France the coup d’etat of 1851, which enabled Louis Napoleon to mount the throne, could not have succeeded twenty years earlier when he made his rash attempt at Strasburg.  All successful revolutions require the ready assent—­nay, even the enthusiasm—­of the people.  The Italian revolution was based on popular discontent in all parts of the country where the people were oppressed, and on their enthusiastic aspirations for a change of rulers.  What could any man of genius, however great his abilities, have done without this support of the people?  What could the leaders of the American Revolution have done unless the thirteen colonies had rallied around them?  Certainly no liberated people ever supported their leaders with greater enthusiasm and more self-sacrifices than the Italians.  Had they been as degraded as has sometimes been represented, they would not have fought so bravely.

The Italian revolution in its origin dates back as early as 1820, when the secret societies were formed—­especially that of the Carbonari—­with a view to shake the existing despotisms.  The Carbonari ("charcoal burners"), as they called themselves, were organized first at Naples.  This uprising (at first successful) in Naples and Piedmont was put down by Austrian bayonets, and the old order of things was restored.  A constitutional government had been promised to various Italian States by the first Napoleon in 1796. when he invited the Italians to rally to his standard and overthrow the Bourbon and Austrian despotisms; but his promises had not been kept.  “Never,” said that great liar to Prince Metternich, “will I give the Italians a liberal system:  I have granted to them only the semblance of it.”  Equally false were the promises made by Austrian generals in 1813, when the Italians were urged to join in the dethronement of the great conqueror who had drafted them into his armies without compensation.

Though Italian liberty was suppressed by the strong arm of despotism, its spirit was kept alive by the secret societies, among whom were enrolled men of all classes; but these societies had no definite ends to accomplish.  Among them were men of every shade of political belief.  In general, they aimed at the overthrow of existing governments rather than at any plan as to what would take their place.  When, through their cabals, they had dethroned Ferdinand I. at Naples, he too, like Napoleon, promised a constitution, and swore to observe it; but he also broke both his promises and oaths, and when reinstated by irresistible forces, he reigned more tyrannically than before.