the infallibility of congregated masses of ignorance, inexperience, and conceit.  Even in those rude times there were the certitudes of religious faith, of domestic endearments, of patriotic devotion, of respect for parents, of loyalty to rulers, of kindness to the poor and miserable; there were the latent fires of freedom, the impulses of generous enthusiasm, and resignation to the ills which could not be removed.  So that in England, in Elizabeth’s time, there was a noble material for Christianity and art and literature to work upon, and to develop a civilization such as had not existed previously on this earth,—­a civilization destined to spread throughout the world in new institutions, inventions, laws, language, and literature, binding hostile races together, and proclaiming the sovereignty of intelligence,—­the [Greek:  nous kratei] of the old Ionian philosophers,—­with that higher sovereignty which Moses based upon the Ten Commandments, and that higher law still which Jesus taught upon the Mount.

Yet with all this fine but rude material for future greatness, it was nevertheless a glaring fact that the condition of England on the accession of Elizabeth was most discouraging,—­a poor and scattered agricultural nation, without a navy of any size, without a regular army, with factions in every quarter, with struggling and contending religious parties, with a jealous parliament of unenlightened country squires; yet a nation seriously threatened by the most powerful monarchies of the Continent, who detested the doctrines which were then taking root in the land.  Against the cabals of Rome, the navies of Spain, and the armies of France,—­alike hostile and dangerous,—­England could make but a feeble show of physical forces, and was protected only by her insular position.  The public dangers were so imminent that there was needed not only a strong hand but a stout heart and a wise head at the helm.  Excessive caution was necessary, perpetual vigilance was imperative; a single imprudent measure might be fatal in such exigencies.  And this accounts for the vacillating policy of Elizabeth, so often condemned by historians.  It did not proceed from weakness of head, but from real necessity occasioned by constant embarrassments and changing circumstances.  According to all the canons of expediency, it was the sign of a sagacious ruler to temporize and promise and deceive in that sad perplexity.  Governments, thus far in the history of nations, have been carried on upon different principles from those that bind the conduct of individuals, especially when the weak contend against the strong.  This, abstractly, is not to be defended.  Governments and individuals alike are bound by the same laws of immutable morality in their general relations; but the rules of war are different from the rules of peace.  Governments are expediencies to suit peculiar crises and exigencies.  A man assaulted by robbers would be a fool to fall back on the passive virtues of non-resistance.