The brunt of the war fell of course upon Austria, so that, as the two nations were equally German, it had many of the melancholy aspects of a civil war.  But Austria was Catholic and Prussia was Protestant; and had Austria succeeded, Germany possibly to-day would have been united under an irresistible Catholic imperialism, and there would have been no German empire whose capital is Berlin.  The Austrians, in this contest, fought bravely and ably, under Prince Carl and Marshal Daun, who were no mean competitors with the King of Prussia for military laurels.  But the Austrians fought on the offensive, and the Prussians on the defensive.  The former were obliged to manoeuvre on the circumference, the latter in the centre of the circle.  The Austrians, in order to recover Silesia, were compelled to cross high mountains whose passes were guarded by Prussian soldiers.  The war began in offensive operations, and ended in defensive.

The most terrible enemy that Frederic had, next to Austria, was Russia, ruled then by Elizabeth, who had the deepest sympathy with Maria Theresa; but when she died, affairs took a new turn.  Frederic was then on the very verge of ruin,—­was, as they say, about to be “bagged,”—­when the new Emperor of Russia conceived a great personal admiration for his genius and heroism; the Russian enmity was converted to friendship, and the Czar became an ally instead of a foe.

The aid which the Saxons gave to Maria Theresa availed but little.  The population, chiefly and traditionally Protestant, probably sympathized with Prussia more than with Austria, although the Elector himself was Catholic,—­that inglorious monarch who resembled in his gallantries Louis XV., and in his dilettante tastes Leo X. He is chiefly known for the number of his concubines and his Dresden gallery of pictures.

The aid which the French gave was really imposing, so far as numbers make efficient armies.  But the French were not the warlike people in the reign of Louis XV. that they were under Henry IV., or Napoleon Bonaparte.  They fought, without the stimulus of national enthusiasm, without a cause, as part of a great machine.  They never have been successful in war without the inspiration of a beloved cause.  This war had no especial attraction or motive for them.  What was it to Frenchmen, so absorbed with themselves, whether a Hohenzollern or a Hapsburg reigned in Germany?  Hence, the great armies which the government of France sent to the aid of Maria Theresa were without spirit, and were not even marshalled by able generals.  In fact, the French seemed more intent on crippling England than in crushing Frederic.  The war had immense complications.  Though France and England were drawn into it, yet both France and England fought more against each other than for the parties who had summoned them to their rescue.

England was Frederic’s ally, but her aid was not great directly.  She did not furnish him with many troops; she sent subsidies instead, which enabled him to continue the contest.  But these were not as great as he expected, or had reason to expect.  With all the money he received from Walpole or Pitt he was reduced to the most desperate straits.