Meanwhile, the new revolution of 1848 was approaching.  Insensibly, the states of Europe had ranged themselves under two principles.  There were on one side the states governed by constitutions, including Great Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden and, Norway, Denmark, and, for the time being, Spain and Portugal.  On the other side were Russia, Prussia, Austria, the Italian States, and some of those of Germany, who held that the right of rule and the making of laws belonged absolutely to certain dynasties, which were, indeed, morally bound to consult the interests of their populations, yet were not responsible to their subjects for the manner in which they might choose to do it.  In the last mentioned states there existed a chronic strife between the people and their rulers.  It was an irrepressible conflict, and its crisis was reached in 1848.

It was in France that things first came to a head.  Louis Philippe and his minister, Guizot, tried to render the government gradually independent of the nation, in imitation of the absolutist empires; and the uneasiness caused by this policy was emphasized by the scarcity that prevailed during the years 1846 and 1847.  The Liberals began to demand electoral reform; but the king, on opening the Chambers, intimated that he was convinced that no reform was needed.  Angry debates ensued, and finally the opposition arranged for a great banquet in the Champs Elysee on February 22, 1848, in support of the reform movement.  This gathering, however, was forbidden by Guizot.  The order was regarded as arbitrary, and the Republicans seized the opportunity.  Barricades appeared in Paris, the king was forced to abdicate, and took refuge with his family in England.  France was thereupon declared to be a Republic, and the government was intrusted to Lamartine and others.  There was now great danger of excesses similar to those of the first great revolution; but the elements of violence were kept under by the opposition of the middle and higher classes.  The communistic clubs were overawed by the National Guards, and on April 16th the Communistic party was defeated.  General Cavaignac, who had been made dictator during the struggle, laid down his office after the battle which began on the 23d of June between the rabble of idle mechanics, eighty thousand in number, and the national forces had been decided in favor of the latter, who slew no less than sixteen thousand of the enemy.  Cavaignac was now appointed chief of the Executive Commission with the title of President of the Council.  A reaction favoring a monarchy was indicated; but meanwhile a new constitution provided for a quadriennial presidency, with a single legislature of seven hundred and fifty members.  Louis Napoleon, the nephew of the great emperor, was chosen by a majority vote for the office in December of 1848.  Four years later he was declared emperor under the title of Napoleon III.