In this brief notice of the most unsuccessful wars in which Europe ever engaged we cannot help noticing their great mistakes.  We see rashness, self-confidence, depreciation of enemies, want of foresight, ignorance of the difficulties to be surmounted.  The crusaders were diverted from their main object, and wasted their forces in attacking unimportant cities, or fortresses out of their way.  They invaded the islands of the Mediterranean, Egypt, Africa, and Greek possessions.  They quarrelled with their friends, and they quarrelled with each other.  The chieftains sought their individual advantage rather than the general good.  Nor did they provide themselves with the necessities for such distant operations.  They had no commissariat,—­without which even a modern army fails.  They were captivated by trifles and frivolities, rather than directing their strength to the end in view.  They allowed themselves to be seduced by both Greek and infidel arts and vices.  They were betrayed into the most foolish courses.  They had no proper knowledge of the forces with which they were to contend.  They wantonly massacred their foes when they fell into their hands, increased the animosity of the Mohammedans, and united them in a concert which they should themselves have sought.  They marched by land when they should have sailed by sea, and they sailed by sea when they should have marched by land.  They intrusted the command to monks and inexperienced leaders.  They obeyed the mandates of apostolic vicars when they should have considered military necessities.  In fact there was no unity of action, and scarcely unity of end.  What would the great masters of Grecian and Roman warfare have thought of these blunders and stupidities, to say nothing of modern generals!  The conduct of those wars excites our contempt, in spite of the heroism of individual knights.  We despise the incapacity of leaders as much as we abhor the fanaticism which animated their labors.  The Crusades have no bright side, apart from the piety and valor of some who embarked in them.  Hence they are less and less interesting to modern readers.  The romance about them has ceased to affect us.  We only see mistakes and follies; and who cares to dwell on the infirmities of human nature?  It is only what is great in man that moves and exalts us.  There is nothing we dwell upon with pleasure in these aggressive, useless, unjustifiable wars, except the chivalry associated with them.  The reason of modern times as sternly rebukes them as the heart of the Middle Ages sickened at them.

In one aspect they are absolutely repulsive; and this in view of their vices.  The crusaders were cruel.  They wantonly massacred their enemies, even when defenceless.  Sixty thousand people were butchered on the fall of Jerusalem; ten thousand were slaughtered in the Mosque of Omar.  The Christians themselves felt safe when they sought the retreat of churches, in dire calamities at home; but they had no respect for the