The only way to make the history of wars interesting is to go back to the ideas, passions, and interests which they represent.  Then we penetrate to the heart of history, and feel its life.  For all the great wars of the world, we shall see, are exponents of its great moving spiritual forces.  The wars of Cyrus and Alexander represent the passion of military glory; those of Marius, Sylla, Pompey, and Caesar, the desire of political aggrandizement; those of Constantine and Theodosius, the desire for political unity and the necessity of self-defence.  The sweeping and desolating inundations of the barbarians, from the third to the sixth century, represent the poverty of those rude nations, and their desire to obtain settlements more favorable to getting a living.  The conquests of Mohammed and his successors were made to swell the number of converts of a new religion.  The perpetual strife of the baronial lords was to increase their domains.  The wars of Charlemagne and Charles V. were to revive the imperialism of the Caesars,—­to create new universal monarchies.  The wars which grew out of the Reformation were to preserve or secure religious liberty; those which followed were to maintain the balance of power.  Those of Napoleon were at first, at least nominally, to spread or defend the ideas of the French Revolution, until he became infatuated with the love of military glory.  Our first great war was to secure national independence, and our second to preserve national unity.  The contest between Prussia and France was to prevent the ascendency of either of those great States.  The wars of the English in India were to find markets for English goods, employment for the sons of the higher classes, and a new field for colonization and political power.  So all the great passions and interests which have moved mankind have found their vent in war,—­rough barbaric spoliations, love of glory and political aggrandizement, desire to spread religious ideas, love of liberty, greediness for wealth, unity of nations, jealousy of other powers, even the desire to secure general peace and tranquillity.  Most wars have had in view the attainment of great ends, and it is in the ultimate results of them that we see the progress of nations.

Thus wars, contemplated in a philosophical aspect, in spite of their repulsiveness are invested with dignity, and really indicate great moral and intellectual movements, as well as the personal ambition or vanity of conquerors.  They are the ultimate solutions of great questions, not to be solved in any other way,—­unfortunately, I grant,—­on account of human wickedness.  And I know of no great wars, much as I loathe and detest them, and severely and justly as they may be reprobated, which have not been overruled for the ultimate welfare of society.  The wars of Alexander led to the introduction of Grecian civilization into Asia and Egypt; those of the Romans, to the pacification of the world and the reign of law and order; those of barbarians, to