sea, so that it was next to impossible for Caesar to embark without being defeated.  Yet Caesar did cross the sea amid overwhelming obstacles, and the result was the battle of Pharsalia,—­deemed one of the decisive battles of the world, although the forces of the combatants were comparatively small.  It was gained by the defeat of Pompey’s cavalry by a fourth line of the best soldiers of Caesar, which was kept in reserve.  Pompey, on the defeat of his cavalry, upon whom he had based his hopes, lost heart and fled.  He fled to the sea,—­uncertain, vacillating, and discouraged,—­and sailed for Egypt, relying on the friendship of the young king; but was murdered treacherously before he set foot upon the land.  His fate was most tragical.  His fall was overwhelming.

This battle, in which the flower of the Roman aristocracy succumbed to the conqueror of Gaul, with vastly inferior forces, did not end the desperate contest.  Two more bloody battles were fought—­one in Africa and one in Spain—­before the supremacy of Caesar was secured.  The battle of Thapsus, between Utica and Carthage, at which the Roman nobles once more rallied under Cato and Labienus, and the battle of Munda, in Spain, the most bloody of all, gained by Caesar over the sons of Pompey, settled the civil war and made Caesar supreme.  He became supreme only by the sacrifice of half of the Roman nobility and the death of their principal leaders,—­Pompey, Labienus, Lentulus, Ligarius, Metellus, Scipio Afrarius, Cato, Petreius, and others.  In one sense it was the contest between Pompey and Caesar for the empire of the world.  Cicero said, “The success of the one meant massacre, and that of the other slavery,”—­for if Pompey had prevailed, the aristocracy would have butchered their enemies with unrelenting vengeance; but Caesar hated unnecessary slaughter, and sought only power.  In another sense it was the struggle between a single man—­with enlightened views and vast designs—­and the Roman aristocracy, hostile to reforms, and bent on greed and oppression.  The success of Caesar was favorable to the restoration of order and law and progressive improvements; the success of the nobility would have entailed a still more grinding oppression of the people, and possibly anarchy and future conflicts between fortunate generals and the aristocracy.  Destiny or Providence gave the empire of the world to a single man, although that man was as unscrupulous as he was able.

Henceforth imperialism was the form of government in Rome, which lasted about four hundred years.  How long an aristocratic government would have lasted is a speculation.  Caesar, in his elevation to unlimited power, used his power beneficently.  He pardoned his enemies, gave security to property and life, restored the finances, established order, and devoted himself to useful reforms.  He cut short the grant of corn to the citizen mob; he repaired the desolation which war had made; he rebuilt cities and temples; he even endeavored to check luxury and