from him in Justinian’s Digest than from any other jurist, except Ulpian.  There are two thousand and eighty-three excerpts from this writer,—­one sixth of the whole Digest.  No legal writer, ancient or modern, has handled so many subjects.  In perspicuity he is said to be inferior to Ulpian, one of the most famous of jurists, who was his contemporary.  Ulpian has also exercised a great influence on modern jurisprudence from the copious extracts of his writings in the Digest.  He was the chief adviser of Alexander Severus, and like Paulus was praefectus praetorio.  The number of excerpts in the Digest from him is said to be two thousand four hundred and sixty-two, and they form a third part of it.  Some fragments of his writings remain.  The last of the great civilians associated with Gaius, Papinian, Paulus, and Ulpian, as oracles of jurisprudence, was Modestinus, who was a pupil of Ulpian.  He wrote both in Greek and Latin.  There are three hundred and forty-five excerpts in the Digest from his writings, the titles of which show the extent and variety of his labors.

These eminent lawyers shed great glory on the Roman civilization.  In the earliest times men sought distinction on the fields of battle, but in the latter days of the republic honor was conferred for forensic ability.  The first pleaders of Rome were not jurisconsults, but aristocratic “patrons,” who looked after their “clients,”—­men of lower social grade, who in return for protection and assistance rendered service, sometimes political by voting, sometimes pecuniary, sometimes military.  But when law became complicated, a class of men arose to interpret it.  These men were held in great honor, and reached by their services the highest offices,—­like Cicero and Hortensius.  No remuneration was given originally for forensic pleading beyond the services which the client gave to a patron, but gradually the practice of the law became lucrative.  Hortensius, as well as Cicero, gained an immense fortune; he had several villas, a gallery of paintings, a large stock of wines, parks, fish-ponds, and aviaries.  Cicero had villas in all parts of Italy, a house on the Palatine with columns of Numidian marble, and a fortune of twenty millions of sesterces, equal to eight hundred thousand dollars.  Most of the great statesmen of Rome in the time of Cicero were either lawyers or generals.  Crassus, Pompey, P. Sextus, M. Marcellus, P. Clodius, Asinius Pollio, C. Cicero, M. Antonius, Julius Caesar, Caelius, Brutus, Catullus, were all celebrated for their forensic efforts.  Candidates for the bar studied four years under a distinguished jurist, and were required to pass a rigorous examination.  The judges were chosen from members of the bar, as well as in later times the senators.  The great lawyers were not only learned in the law, but possessed great accomplishments.  Varro was a lawyer, and was the most learned man that Rome ever produced.  But under the emperors the lawyers were chiefly distinguished for their legal attainments, like Paulus and Ulpian.