— Charles Darwin announces the doctrine of evolution.  See “DARWIN
PUBLISHES His ORIGIN OF SPECIES.”

— Russia captures Shamyl, and subdues the entire region of the
Caucasus.

— Cavour, the chief statesman of Sardinia, arranges an alliance
with France and begins a war with Austria to establish “United
Italy.”

— “BATTLES OF MAGENTA AND SOLFERINO.”

— Lombardy added to the Italian Kingdom; Venice remains Austrian.

1860 — Garibaldi and his “Thousand” attack the Neapolitans in

Sicily; they capture Naples.  Victor Emmanuel seizes the States
of the Church.  See “THE KINGDOM OF ITALY ESTABLISHED.”

1860 — French and English troops seize Peking and dictate peace terms.

— Election of Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, as
President of the United States.  South Carolina secedes from the
Union.

1861 — “EMANCIPATION OF RUSSIAN SERFS.”