from the four winds, and formed and fought the battle through, under the constant hot fire of a disciplined, proud, and pampered enemy.  Did we brave all then, to falter now—–­now, when that same enemy is wavering, dissevered, and belligerent?  The result is not doubtful.  We shall not fail; if we stand firm, we shall not fail.  Wise counsels may accelerate or mistakes delay it, but sooner or later the victory is sure to come.

(1854) THE OPENING OF JAPAN, Matthew C. Perry

In view of the events that have followed, the ending of Japan’s self-isolation and the opening of that country, first to American commerce, and later to world-wide intercourse, must now be regarded as an achievement of momentous consequence, far exceeding in importance all that even the most prophetic statesmanship of the time could foresee.

Under the shoguns (or military chiefs) who after the seventh century overshadowed the hereditary rulers, the Mikados, there grew up in Japan a feudal system whereby the generals, recognized as overlords, increased and perpetuated their power.  The attempts in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to introduce Christianity were met with resistance and persecution, and ended in failure.  In the same centuries Japan traded with the Portuguese, but excluded them in 1638.  After this the Japanese isolation was complete, except for restricted trade with the Dutch, until the conclusion of Commodore Perry’s treaty.

About the middle of the nineteenth century a large amount of American capital was invested in the whaling industry in Japanese and Chinese waters, and one motive for the sending of Perry’s expedition to Japan was the protection of the whalers.  Other things leading to that step were:  the discovery of gold in California; the growth of industrial and commercial centres on the Pacific Coast of the United States; increasing trade with China; and the development of steam-navigation, necessitating coaling-stations and ports for shelter in the Orient.  At the same time progressive minds in Japan were advancing in knowledge of Western science and political affairs; thus the East and the West were almost prepared for a change in their mutual relations.

In 1851 the United States Government empowered Commodore John H. Aulick to negotiate and sign commercial treaties with Japan.  On the eve of his intended departure he was prevented from sailing, and in the following year Commodore Matthew C. Perry, brother of Oliver Hazard Perry, the hero of Lake Erie, succeeded to his mission.  He was invested with extraordinary naval and diplomatic powers, his immediate object being to establish a coaling-station in Japan.  On November 24, 1852, he sailed from Norfolk with the Mississippi, leaving other ships to follow as soon as ready.  With his squadron he entered the Bay of Tokio (then called Yedo) in July, 1853, causing great commotion among the inhabitants of the Japanese capital, who mistook his appearance for a hostile approach.