to the conduct of the communities subject to Athens at several critical moments of the Peloponnesian War.  With this consolidation of Italy, thus triumphantly demonstrated, the whole problem of the conquering career of Rome was solved.  All that came afterwards was simply a corollary from this.  The concentration of all the fighting power of the peninsula into the hands of the ruling city formed a stronger political aggregate than anything the world had as yet seen.  It was not only proof against the efforts of the greatest military genius of antiquity, but whenever it was brought into conflict with the looser organizations of Greece, Africa, and Asia, or with the semi-barbarous tribes of Spain and Gaul, the result of the struggle was virtually predetermined.  The universal dominion of Rome was inevitable, so soon as the political union of Italy had been accomplished.  Among the Romans themselves there were those who thoroughly understood this point, as we may see from the interesting speech of the emperor Claudius in favour of admitting Gauls to the senate.

The benefits conferred upon the world by the, universal dominion of Rome were of quite inestimable value.  First of these benefits, and (as it were) the material basis of the others, was the prolonged peace that was enforced throughout large portions of the world where chronic warfare had hitherto prevailed.  The pax romana has perhaps been sometimes depicted in exaggerated colours; but as compared with all that had preceded, and with all that followed, down to the beginning of the nineteenth century, it deserved the encomiums it has received.  The second benefit was the mingling and mutual destruction of the primitive tribal and municipal religions, thus clearing the way for Christianity,—­a step which, regarded from a purely political point of view, was of immense importance for the further consolidation of society in Europe.  The third benefit was the development of the Roman law into a great body of legal precepts and principles leavened throughout with ethical principles of universal applicability, and the gradual substitution of this Roman law for the innumerable local usages of ancient communities.  Thus arose the idea of a common Christendom, of a brotherhood of peoples associated both by common beliefs regarding the unseen world and by common principles of action in the daily affairs of life.  The common ethical and traditional basis thus established for the future development of the great nationalities of Europe is the most fundamental characteristic distinguishing modern from ancient history.

While, however, it secured these benefits for mankind for all time to come, the Roman political system in itself was one which could not possibly endure.  That extension of the franchise which made Rome’s conquests possible, was, after all, the extension of a franchise which could only be practically enjoyed within the walls of the imperial city itself.  From first to last the device of representation was